Plant Community Properties Research Articles

Ecological drivers of fine-scale distribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a semiarid Mediterranean scrubland.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi enhance the uptake of water and minerals by the plant hosts, alleviating plant stress. Therefore, AM fungal-plant interactions are particularly important in drylands and other stressful ecosystems. We aimed to determine the combined and independent effects of above- and below-ground plant community attributes (i.e. diversity and composition), soil heterogeneity and spatial covariates on the spatial structure of the AM fungal communities in a semiarid Mediterranean scrubland. Furthermore, we evaluated how the phylogenetic relatedness of both plants and AM fungi shapes these symbiotic relationships. We characterized the composition and diversity of AM fungal and plant communities in a dry Mediterranean scrubland taxonomically and phylogenetically, using DNA metabarcoding and a spatially explicit sampling design at the plant neighbourhood scale. The above- and below-ground plant community attributes, soil physicochemical properties and spatial variables explained unique fractions of AM fungal diversity and composition. Mainly, variations in plant composition affected the AM fungal composition and diversity. Our results also showed that particular AM fungal taxa tended to be associated with closely related plant species, suggesting the existence of a phylogenetic signal. Although soil texture, fertility and pH affected AM fungal community assembly, spatial factors had a greater influence on AM fungal community composition and diversity than soil physicochemical properties. Our results highlight that the more easily accessible above-ground vegetation is a reliable indicator of the linkages between plant roots and AM fungi. We also emphasize the importance of soil physicochemical properties in addition to below-ground plant information, while accounting for the phylogenetic relationships of both plants and fungi, because these factors improve our ability to predict the relationships between AM fungal and plant communities.

RGB vs. Multispectral imagery: Mapping aapa mire plant communities with UAVs

Plant communities of mires can be linked to important ecological processes, such as carbon storage and gas fluxes. As indicators of ecosystem dynamics, knowledge about their distribution and condition can support ecosystem assessment. Mapping mire vegetation enables monitoring at ecosystem-scale, which can be done with UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). Depending on the mounted sensor and the spectral signals recorded, various attributes of plant communities can be retrieved. However, it is uncertain to what extent plant communities can be derived, as mapping vegetation on detailed level remains challenging due to overlapping spectral signatures of plant species. Advancing technology offers the choice between low cost RGB and multispectral sensors as well as a variety of classification methods to overcome these challenges. Therefore, we used K-means unsupervised classification and Random Forest supervised classification with different input variables to map microtopographical patterns and plant communities of two aapa mires as resolved by hierarchical clustering. This extensive approach allowed the assessment of both classifier’s strength and weaknesses, as well as the criteria of selecting suitable input data. UAV- RGB and multispectral imagery with associated spectral and topographical indices of both 0.05 m and 0.30 m spatial resolution were used for the K-means method. We assessed the relationship between these generated spectral classes and plant community clusters. The clusters further served as training and validation labels for to classify the high resolution, multispectral UAV-data (0.05 m) using Random Forest. Our study demonstrates that maps reflecting microtopograpical patterns and a wetness gradient can be produced with low-cost RGB imagery and unsupervised classification. Despite this linkage to plant communities, enhanced and detailed maps of plant community distribution can only be achieved with multispectral data and robust machine learning techniques. Random forest classifications showed good overall accuracies (0.59 – 0.82) in mapping microtopographical patterns and plant communities based on hierarchical clustering of vegetation data. While the strength of both classifiers lies in the distinction of bog hummock communities, classification performance was weaker between different transition and lawn community types. Casual misclassifications occurred also for communities along the transition of microtopographical patterns. The main obstacle for accurate mapping remains the overlap of spectral signatures from species and spectral noise originating from wetness in mires that lead to misclassification. Future studies addressing plant community and diversity mapping should therefore consider the origin of spectral variation with further sensors.

Neighboring plant community attributes drive rhizobiome assemblages of a focal plant in a Kobresia meadow

The rhizosphere microbiome (i.e., rhizobiome) plays critical roles in modulating plant performance and fitness. Although plants in natural environments are inevitably affected by neighboring plants, less is known about how attributes of neighboring plant communities affect the rhizobiome of a focal plant. We evaluated the impacts of neighboring plant community attributes (e.g., above- and belowground plant species richness, identity, biomass and composition) on the richness and community composition of rhizosphere archaea, bacteria and fungi associated with Kobresia setchwanensis in an alpine meadow on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. We found that the richness of neighboring plant species both above- and belowground was poorly related to the rhizobiome richness of the focal plant. In contrast, the dissimilarity in aboveground rather than belowground plant community composition was positively correlated with the dissimilarity in the rhizobiome community composition. Aboveground plant community attributes posed stronger effects than belowground attributes on rhizobiome richness and community composition. The identities of neighboring plant species were the most important predictors of rhizobiome richness and community composition. Structural equation modeling further indicated that the effects of neighboring plant community attributes on the rhizobiome composition could be direct or indirect, by impacting bulk soil microbial communities. Our study provides empirical evidence that neighboring plant community attributes are important determinants of the rhizobiome communities of the focal plant in natural environments.

Revealing the Permanent and Transient Plant Understory in Gallery Forests in the Cerrado of Central Brazil

Abstract The understories of tropical forests comprise complex communities and can be divided into permanent understory, where the generally shade-tolerant plant growth forms are less developed in height, and transient understory, where young tree individuals are only temporarily present. Despite a high contribution to species richness in tropical forests, the understory is poorly studied. Here, we examined the species composition, richness, structure, diversity, and the relative contribution of growth forms in permanent and transient understories of gallery forests in the Brazilian Cerrado. A total of 211 species distributed into sixty-seven families and 153 genera were sampled. The most species-rich family was Rubiaceae, and Miconia was the genus with the highest species richness. The species Hildaea pallens had the highest importance in the forests. The best-represented growth forms were tree seedlings, followed by shrubs and lianas. The transient component of the understory in gallery forests was the most diverse. However, in terms of species relative cover, both transient and permanent understory species contributed equally to the understory structure, mainly due to the high cover of Poaceae species. Our study is the first to examine composition, structure, diversity, and growth forms in the permanent and transient understories of gallery forests. Study Implications: Our study is innovative in describing the plant community attributes of gallery forest understories in the Brazilian Cerrado. The understories of tropical forests comprise complex communities and can be divided into permanent and transient understory. The transient component of the understory in gallery forests was the most diverse, represented by seedlings and young tree specimens. However, in terms of species relative cover, both transient and permanent understory species contributed equally to the understory structure. Here, we provide evidence that may be useful to initiatives seeking to conduct ecological restoration and conservation of gallery forests in the Cerrado.

Long-term active restoration of degraded grasslands enhances vegetation resilience by altering the soil seed bank

Long-term active restoration is often employed to restore degraded grasslands. The establishment of a viable soil seed bank is the key to successful restoration, as it enhances the resilience of vegetation. However, little is known of how the soil seed bank affects vegetation resilience following long-term active restoration of degraded grasslands. We determined seed abundance and species composition of the soil seed bank and soil properties and vegetation resilience of intact, degraded, and long-term (>10 years) actively restored grasslands on the Tibetan plateau (3900–4200 m a.s.l.). The plant-soil-seed bank quality index and structural equation modelling (SEM) were used to assess the effect of the soil seed bank on vegetation resilience. After long-term (>10 years) active restoration of degraded grasslands by sowing seeds of native plant species, the densities of transient and persistent seeds increased by 5%, but seed richness (number of species) decreased by 25% when compared with degraded grasslands. This occurred largely as a result of an increase in grass but decrease in forb seeds. Persistent seeds of grasses play an important role in the productivity of restored grasslands, while the density of persistent seeds serves as an indicator of the resilience of vegetation. A combination of the plant community and soil properties determined seed density. Here, we show for the first time that long-term active restoration enhances vegetation resilience of grasslands by altering the soil seed bank. A high seed density of sown Gramineae and a low seed density of forbs in the soil seed bank is a key to the successful active restoration of degraded grasslands.

Meta-analysis of effects of grazing on plant community properties in Nei Mongol grassland

Meta-analysis of effects of grazing on plant community properties in Nei Mongol grassland

Solidago canadensis invasion destabilizes the understory plant community and soil properties of coastal shelterbelt forests of subtropical China

Solidago canadensis invasion destabilizes the understory plant community and soil properties of coastal shelterbelt forests of subtropical China

V horizon development and factors associated in different geomorphological units of an arid-region alluvial fan. Pre-Andes of San Juan, Argentina

Alluvial fans are frequently associated with desert pavements and V horizons. In particular, the Talacasto River alluvial fan presents a spatial configuration that gives rise to different levels of deposition. The present work has the following objectives: 1: determine whether geomorphological and superficial characteristics of the landforms influence the presence, development and spatial distribution of soils and V horizons. Also, if vegetation patterns could be used as indicators of the V horizon, and 2: analyze the relationship between geomorphometric characteristics, soil properties and vegetation patterns in the different geomorphological units. Soil and vegetation studies were performed along the different geomorphological units (9) for the alluvial fan. Soil morphology and physical properties were analyzed, emphasizing the presence of the genetic V horizon. In addition, the surface properties and the attributes of plant communities were quantified. The relationship between soil, geomorphometric and vegetation variables was evaluated through Redundancy Analysis (RDA), Spearman's Correlation Analysis and Generalized Linear Models (GLM). The results show that the V horizon is heterogeneously distributed over the alluvial fan. In the older alluvial levels, the V horizon is thicker and finer-textured compared to modern levels. In addition, the V horizon of geomorphic surfaces is negatively correlated with slope and positively correlated with wind effect. V Horizon thickness is positively correlated with sediment coverage, however, it does not show correlation with the vegetation and rock coverage, while the vegetation and rock coverage present a strong negative correlation. The vegetation patterns show significant differences between geomorphological units analyzed. Species richness and diversity are positively correlated with sediment coverage, but are not correlated with V horizon thickness, therefore, species richness and diversity are not good predictors. Our main conclusion indicates that the presence of the V horizon depends on the geomorphometric properties. In contrast, the thickness of the V horizon is independent of vegetation and rock coverage. Two plant species could be used as predictors of the presence and thickness of the V horizon, L. cuneifolia and B. retama.

Enclosure in Combination with Mowing Simultaneously Promoted Grassland Biodiversity and Biomass Productivity.

Grassland is the primary land use in China, which has experienced extensive degradation in recent decades due to overexploitation. Here, we conducted field experiments to quantify the degraded grassland’s recovery rate in Northeast Inner Mongolia in response to restoration measures, including fallow + enclosure (FE) and mowing + enclosure (ME) in comparison to livestock grazing (LG), since 2005. Plant community properties were surveyed and aboveground biomass (AGB) sampled in summer 2013. Our results showed that the regional dominant species Leymus chinensis retained its dominance under FE, whereas a range of forb species gained dominance under LG. Vegetative cover was maximal under FE and minimal under LG. The least amount of vegetation development and AGB were observed under LG. However, plant diversity showed an opposite pattern, with maximal diversity under LG and minimal under FE. Statistical analysis revealed that AGB was negatively associated with plant diversity for all treatments except ME. For ME, a positive AGB-diversity relationship was characterized, suggesting that mowing intensity was a controlling factor for the AGB-diversity relationship. Overall, these results demonstrated that enclosure plus mowing represented an effective conservation measure that provided fair support to forage production and a progressive pathway to a more resilient grassland system.

Effects of Different Management Practices on Plant Community and Soil Properties in a Restored Grassland

Effects of Different Management Practices on Plant Community and Soil Properties in a Restored Grassland

Grazing intensity gradient inherited from traditional herding still explains Mediterranean grassland characteristics despite current land-use changes

Grazing is well-known to shape plant populations and plant communities and to affect several compartment characteristics of grazed ecosystems. Semi-natural grassland conservation depends on the maintenance of traditional extensive grazing systems which can exist for centuries, even millennia. However, very few studies have concomitantly investigated the effect of grazing management on plant, forage, litter and soil compartments and the implications of their potential interactions for conservation after recent changes in grazing practices.This study thus aimed to identify the concomitant effects of sheep grazing on the latter compartments of Mediterranean grasslands. We further investigated the effects of a recent change from millenia-old traditional herding to contemporary fenced free grazing. We also sought to determine how this change may impact the agronomic and ecological value of these grasslands.Surveys were carried out at 6 different study sites paired by the two different grazing practices in a French Mediterranean sub-steppic vegetation (“Crau” plain in Southeastern France).Using linear models and distance-based redundancy analysis, effects of grazing intensity, grazing practices and their interactions were tested on plant community, forage, litter and soil physicochemical properties. Our results show that, there was a significant effect of grazing intensity on the four studied compartments, with significantly higher species richness and evenness at moderate grazing intensity. Biomass was also significantly higher at moderate grazing intensity. Digestibility of forage, litter quality and soil fertility decreased significantly under less intensive grazing. Significant differences were also found in the relative size of the areas covered by each plant communities. Recent fenced free grazing led to significantly more intensively grazed zones, with more mesophilous/nitrophilous vegetation. Conversely, in zones traditionally less intensively grazed, the contemporary free grazing led to higher plant species-richness but again with more mesophilous species. Implications for conservation management are that the legacy of millennia-old traditional herding still compensates partly for the effects of changing practice to contemporary fenced free grazing on plant community composition but not on their relative sizes. This indicates an increase in grazing intensity in the remotest zone which could lead to grassland plant community homogenization.

Disturbance affects the contribution of coastal dune vegetation to carbon storage and carbon sequestration rate

Coastal dune vegetation has been proved to contribute to several crucial ecosystem services, as coastal protection, water purification, recreation; conversely, its capacity to regulate the concentration of greenhouse gases received less attention. To fill this gap, the present work focalized on the assessment of the contribution of coastal dune herbaceous vegetation to carbon storage and carbon sequestration rate, also in relation to possible effects of disturbance. To this aim, we measured the dry biomass and carbon sequestration rate in three different vegetation types (foredune, dry grasslands, humid grasslands), and habitat patch attributes as proxies of the disturbance regime. Relationships between disturbance, and carbon storage and sequestration rate have been analysed by GLMMs. The target vegetation types did not equally contribute to the medium-long term sequestration of carbon with a gradient that increased from the seashore inlands and related to both the growth form and the strategy of resource acquisition of dominant species, and plant community attributes. Disturbance in the form of trampling negatively affected carbon sequestration rate. Results suggest that, when different plant communities are spatially interconnected, the landscape scale results in a better understanding of ecosystem dynamics, functioning and resistance to perturbations and allows to plan coherent management strategies.

Functional Diversity of Plant Communities in Relationship to Leaf and Soil Stoichiometry in Karst Areas of Southwest China

Assessment of relationships between functional diversity and ecological stoichiometry in plant communities can aid in determining the relative variability and ecological complementarity of functional attributes among species, which is a better approach to understanding ecosystem processes and functions than studying species taxonomic diversity. Here, we analyzed the relationships among community weighted means of functional traits, functional diversity, and leaf and soil chemical properties of plant communities during various stages of vegetation restoration in Mao Lan National Karst Forest Nature Reserve, located in humid subtropical Guizhou of China. Our results showed significant changes in four weighted functional traits of plant communities at different restoration stages, namely, plant height, leaf width to leaf length ratio, and leaf area. Additionally, with the progression of the recovery of plant communities, functional richness, functional separation, and quadratic entropy, the coefficient tended to increase. Functional divergence tended to gradually decrease. The association of functional diversity with soil chemical properties was stronger than that with leaf ecological stoichiometry. Regarding leaf and soil chemical properties, soil phosphorus content and leaf C:P were particularly important in influencing functional diversity. Our overall findings indicate that functional traits shift from “acquisitive” to “conservative” as the community is restored. Karst plant communities reduce interspecific resource competition as restoration proceeds, thereby increasing functional overlap effects.

Variation in Soil Bacterial and Fungal Community Composition at Different Successional Stages of a Broad-Leaved Korean Pine Forest in the Lesser Hinggan Mountains

Soil microorganisms are an integral part of the soil and are highly sensitive to environmental changes. The shift in plant community and soil properties following forest succession may cause differences in soil bacterial and fungal community composition. Some studies suggested following the succession of the community, the species composition tends to switch from r-strategy groups to k-strategy groups. However, generalization on the changing pattern has not been worked out. Three forests at an early-, intermediate-, and late-stage (ES, IS, LS) of the succession of broad-leaved Korean pine forest in the Lesser Hinggan Mountains were surveyed to study the variation in soil bacterial and fungal community composition as the succession proceeds. Soil microbial community composition and related soil factors were analyzed by systematic sampling. Significant differences in soil microbial community composition were detected between forests at different stages. The bacterial diversity increased, while the fungal diversity decreased (p < 0.05) from the early to the late successional forest. The fungi to bacteria ratio (F/B) and the (Proteobacteria + Bacteroidetes) to (Actinobacteria + Acidobacteria) ratio increased substantially with succession (p < 0.05). At the phylum level, Bacteroidetes, Ascomycota and Mortierellomycota were dominant in the ES forest, while Actinobacteria and Basidiomycota were prevalent in the LS forest. At the class level, Gammaproteobacteria, Acidobacteriia, Bacteroidia, Sordariomycetes and Mortierellomycetes were dominant in the ES forest, whereas Subgroup_6, Agaricomycetes, Geminibasidiomycetes and Tremellomycetes were dominant in the LS forest. Soil water content (SWC) and available phosphorus (AP) had significant effects on the bacterial community composition (p < 0.05). Soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), the carbon–nitrogen ratio (C/N), total potassium (TK) and SWC had significant effects on the fungal community composition (p < 0.05). SOC and TN were positively correlated with r-strategy groups (p < 0.05) and were significantly negatively correlated with k-strategy groups (p < 0.05). Our results suggest that the soil bacterial and fungal community composition changed significantly in forests across the successional stages, and the species composition switched from r-strategy to k-strategy groups. The bacterial and fungal community diversity variation differed in forests across the successional stages. The changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen content resulted in the shifting of microbial species with different ecological strategies.

Dissecting fine root diameter distribution at the community level captures root morphological diversity

Characterizing plant functional diversity is essential to decipher community assembly rules and ecosystem functioning. Most studies focused on above‐ground traits whereas the analysis of root diversity lags far behind. We analyzed the structure of fine root (< 2 mm) diameter distribution at the community level as an indicator of root morphological diversity, and hypothesized that the shape of the distribution provide insights on root types and root exploration strategies. We tested this hypothesis along a successional gradient (6–69 year‐old) with yearly mowing to better understand assembly rules regarding to belowground processes, and explored the relations between the parameters describing its modes and the vegetation composition and ecological properties of plant communities. Most communities showed a multimodal distribution, with two main modes corresponding to absorptive roots (thinner root mode) and transport roots (coarser root mode), and a third mode of lower importance corresponding to large transport roots. In early succession, the thinnest root mode was prominent, reflecting the dominance of thin absorptive roots and a low proportion of transport roots, resulting in a low root morphological diversity. As succession proceeds, the relative proportion of the second mode increased, and the proportions of the two main modes were more balanced, resulting in an increased variance and root morphological diversity. Furthermore, the first root mode (absorptive roots) became wider and shifted from very thin to thicker roots, suggesting the coexistence of various root strategies for resource exploration. Yearly mowing did not affect root diameter distribution, which may relate to the relative low mowing pressure that enabled woody species to remain, with stunted stature. Overall, our study demonstrates that the distribution of fine root diameters sheds light on root morphological diversity at the community level, and provide hints on the co‐existence of root types and strategies for resource use and exploration.

Short-Term Abandonment versus Mowing in a Mediterranean-Temperate Meadow: Effects on Floristic Composition, Plant Functionality, and Soil Properties—A Case Study

Hay meadows are secondary grasslands maintained by mowing, and their ecological importance resides in the inherent biodiversity and carbon stocking. We investigated the plant community and soil properties of a sub humid acid grassland near the Fucecchio marshes (Italy), managed as a hay meadow, mowed once a year, and not fertilized. Part of the meadow had been abandoned for three years. We analysed the soil properties (i.e., organic carbon and total nitrogen content, available phosphorus, pH, cation-exchange capacity, texture, and conductibility) and the plant community structure (composition, functionality, and species richness) of the two sides of the meadow (mowed and abandoned). Our aim was to highlight the changes in soil properties and vegetation community, and to find out to what extent abandonment can affect those dynamics. Our results showed that after short-term abandonment, soil pH, C and N increased; litter biomass and perennial forbs increased; and annual forbs decreased. New species colonising after abandonment, thus enriching the flora, may keep spreading and eventually hinder the growth of the specialists if mowing is not resumed. Certain valuable meadow habitats need constant human intervention to maintain their peculiar vegetation, most especially if they are a buffer zone in the proximity of natural protected areas.

Changes in vegetation and soil properties across 12 years after afforestation in the hilly-gully region of the Loess Plateau

Vegetation restoration is the primary method used to prevent soil erosion and improve the ecological environment. The objective of this study was to explore how vegetation and soil properties changed over time in natural and artificial vegetation types. We conducted vegetation surveys in four permanent plots over 12 years (2007–2018) and measured soil properties in 2007, 2013, and 2016. The results showed that the change in species composition in natural vegetation was a continuous and progressive process. After approximately ten years of natural herb restoration, trees began to appear and formed sparse forests. In artificial vegetation, the species composition of the undergrowth varied under Robinia pseudoacacia forests during restoration years, and was dominated by Poaceae and annual plants that could tolerate shade and drought. Species composition was stable under Caragana korshinskii shrubs, where the undergrowth was dominated by perennial plants that were similar to natural vegetation. In different vegetation types, species richness, diversity, and herb community cover fluctuated, while the succession rate decreased with the number of restoration years. The soil moisture condition was better in natural vegetation than in artificial vegetation, and could be maintained near the stable field capacity. The soil moisture was supplemented to 280 cm in R. pseudoacacia forests and 320 cm in C. korshinskii shrubs in a year with extreme rainfall, but the dry soil layer returned in the following years. Soil nutrients improved over time, especially in artificial vegetation, which appears to be better than natural vegetation. In general, natural vegetation improved plant community and soil properties. Artificial vegetation only improved soil nutrients, but caused soil desiccation which is difficult to recover. Therefore, the natural vegetation restoration model of sparse forest grassland was better than artificial vegetation model.

Changes in plant community and soil properties mediated by grazing in semi-desert of Mongolia

Recent increases in livestock numbers throughout Mongolia could alter plant communities, soils of habitats differed by landscape position. We aimed to determine the impact of large herbivore grazing on some soil properties and plant communities’ richness and of the four different habitats within the Ikh Nart Nature Reserve. The highest plant species richness and evenness was observed around the rocky outcrop habitats, followed by shrublands, then the spring, and finally by the well habitat. Soils at habitats around and close to water points are compacted and have lower organic matters compared to the less grazed habitats. The data indicates that the highest overlap between livestock and wild ungulates occurs near spring habitats, which increases vulnerability to local land degradation. Therefore, the study results suggest that appropriate land-use management is required in the semi-desert regions across Mongolia. There is a necessity to initiate an extensive grazing ecological management that reflects the sustainable grazing of large herbivores, the benefits to herder households, and the ecosystem’s service.

Glade and Forest-Edge Plant Community Attributes for Three Glade Types in Arusha National Park, Tanzania

The aim of the study was to compare glade and forest-glade edge plant community attributes for man-made, upper and lower natural glades. Two plots were set up in twelve glades at 2.5, 12.5 m and three plots in thirteen glades at 2.5, 12.5 and 22.5 m depending on the size of the glade. The results showed that plants total abundance, percentage basal cover, species richness and species diversity for upper and lower natural glades differed significantly p -4.51, p χ2 = 15.95, df = 4, p Eleusine jaegeri, Heterogon contortus, Senna mimisoides, Digitaria scalarum, Clutia abyssinica) were habitat indicators for disturbed areas, wet humid grey/black clay soils for upper natural glades and three (Solanum incanum, Senna didymobotrya, and Pennistem mezianum, were indicators of overgrazed areas and black clay soils for man-made glades. In conclusion, plant species abundance, richness and diversity were highest at the forest-glade edge and decreased towards the glade interior, while plant species composition differed significantly between the three-glade types. The plant growth form for lower natural glades was associated with forest-glade edge and glade interior.

Evaluating the effectiveness of vegetation conservation on a sacred mountain in western China

Sacred natural sites, as probably the oldest form of habitat reserve for religious or cultural causes worldwide, are suggested to have an important role in conserving vegetation; however, there are insufficient data supporting the detailed implications of such sites for vegetation conservation. Thus, we evaluated the effectiveness of vegetation conservation on a Tibetan sacred mountain in Yajiang County, Sichuan, China, by investigating species richness and the structural attributes of higher vascular plant communities on and around the sacred mountain from April to June 2009. The results showed that the number of tree species on the sacred mountain was significantly higher than that in the surrounding area, but there were no notable differences in the numbers of shrub and grass species between the two sites. The sacred mountain harbored a greater number of small, short trees compared with the surrounding area, wherein the low-shrub and grass understory was relatively dense. We conclude that the sacred mountain has a positive impact on indigenous vegetation protection, but disparities in the management of the allowed uses of such sites could reduce their conservation effectiveness.