Pileated Woodpecker Research Articles

Scaling of Muscle Composition, Wing Morphology, and Intermittent Flight Behavior in Woodpeckers

Existing theory and empirical evidence suggest that body size should have a profound influence upon the composition of flight muscles and the performance of inter- mittent flight in birds. I examine the relationships between functional morphology and intermittent flight behavior within a closely-related group of birds using six species of woodpeckers (Picidae): Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens, 27.2 g), Red-naped Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus nuchalis, 47.4 g), Hairy Woodpecker (P. villosus, 70.5 g), Lewis' Woodpecker (Me- lanerpes lewis, 106.6 g), Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus, 148.1 g), and Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus, 262.5 g). In woodpeckers with a body mass less than 100 g, the pectoralis muscle was composed mostly of red (R) fibers, with intermediate (I) fibers either absent or restricted to lateral regions. R and I fibers were found in all regions of the pectoralis in the larger species. Positive scaling of the percent and cross-sectional diameter of I fibers may explain why species larger than 100 g flap-bounded when theory predicts they should not have sufficient power. Differences were evident in staining characteristics of I fibers among (but not within) species. Phylogenetic effects were apparent because hypothesized sister taxa shared similarities in muscle composition. Internal and external wing dimensions scaled according to the predictions of geometric similarity, but the Red-naped Sapsucker and Lewis' Woodpecker possessed slightly higher wing-shape indices (narrower, more-pointed wings) than the other species, which may reflect migratory and flycatching behavior as well as phylogeny. All of the species exhibited flap-bounding. The number of flaps in a flapping phase, wingbeat frequency, flapping-phase duration, and bounding-phase duration all scaled negatively with body mass, whereas the percent time spent flapping and flight speed scaled slightly positively. Lewis' Woodpecker was unusual in its intermittent flight behavior by spending more time flapping, using lower wingbeat frequencies and flying slower than would be expected for its body mass. It was the only species to pursue flying insects using highly maneuvered flights including extended glides, although the Red-naped Sapsucker was ob- served to flycatch without gliding. Slow flight speed, rather than wing design, was related to gliding in the Lewis' Woodpecker. I fibers in the pectoralis of the Lewis' Woodpecker were unique in showing intense glycolytic potential, perhaps reflecting the species' foraging style. Received 2 May 1995, accepted 21 August 1995.

Forest Health and Wildlife Habitat Management on the Boise National Forest, Idaho

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) requires the Forest Service to provide for diversity of plant and animal communities and maintain viable wildlife populations. Changes in forest stand structure, species composition and disturbance patterns within ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) habitat types on the Boise National Forest make it difficult to meet NFMA direction. Three management strategies, including "no action," were evaluated in terms of the risk of wildfire's effects on plant community diversity and distrbution, dispersal, and local population viability for the pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) and flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus). The no action alternative appeared to have the greatest long-term risk to plant community diversity and wildlife species distribution and dispersal. Landscape analysis that considers the capabilities and risks associated with different-management strategies is recommended to meet NFMA direction while responding to diverse public expectations of the Forest.

Habitat Use and Management of Pileated Woodpeckers in Northeastern Oregon

We determined home range size and habitats used by pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) to provide essential information for proper management of the species in northeastern Oregon. Twenty-three pileated woodpeckers fitted with transmitters were followed for 5-10 months (Jun-Mar) during 1989-90. Mated pairs (n = 7) ranged over smaller areas (x = 407 ha) than birds (x = 597 ha) whose mates had died (n = 9). Habitat use within home ranges was not random. Stands with old growth, grand fir (Abies grandis), no logging, and ≥60% canopy closure were used more (P < 0.01) than expected, and all other types of stands were used less than expected. From june until March, 38% of the observations of foraging were on downed logs, 38% on dead trees, 18 on live trees, and 6% on stumps

Roost Trees Used by Pileated Woodpeckers in Northeastern Oregon

We wanted to identify the types of trees and habitat used by pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) for roosting, and to develop management guidelines to provide this habitat. Thus, we located 123 roost trees used by 22 pileated woodpeckers and observed their roosting behavior in northeastern Oregon, 1989-90. In all 443 instances, adult pileated woodpeckers roosted inside a cavity at night. The majority (62%) of the roosts were in grand fir (Abies grandis), both live and dead, that were extensively decayed by Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium). The decay had created a hollow chamber inside the tree that averaged 4.3 m long (SE=0.22) and 28 cm (0.29) wide where birds roosted

Arthropod Diet of Pileated Woodpeckers in Northeastern Oregon

We examined 330 samples of scat collected from 23 individual pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) from August 1989 to August 1990. Based on arthropod mandibles found in the scats, the diet was 68% carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.), 29% thatching ants (Formica spp.) and other ants, 0.4% beetles (Coleoptera), and 2% other. Diet changed seasonally with none or few (0-11%) of the thatching and other ants found from November to February, but these ants comprised most of the diet from June until September. Carpenter ants were found in the diet in all months. Scats collected from the roost cavity of one bird contained 170 mandibles of western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) and 259 mandibles of an unknown Isoptera. Knowing the diet of any species is important in understanding its foraging ecology. Diet of the pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) has been described in the eastern United States and includes insects (primarily ants and wood-boring beetle larvae) all year and some fruits and nuts in the fall (Conway 1957; Hoyt 1957). Bent (1939) reported stomach contents of three birds to contain ants, beetle larvae, and fruits and seeds. Beckwith and Bull (1985) found that this species feeds primarily on ants in northeastern Oregon. Our objective was to determine the arthropod diet of D. pileatus over time in northeastern Oregon. STUDY AREA AND METHODS The study was conducted in the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon in Baker, Umatilla, Union, and Wallowa Counties. We collected scats from birds in six study areas within 200 km of either La Grande or Wallowa, Oregon. The study areas were in mixed conifer forests; scattered grasslands comprised 4-14% of these areas. The forests were predominantly mature, uneven-aged stands of grand fir (Abies grandis), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), western larch (Larix occidentalis), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Two of the study areas had been high-graded 40 years ago, three had partial overstory removals about 20 years ago, and one had been extensively logged (clearcut and shelterwood) within the last 15 years. We captured 23 adult D. pileatus in summer (mid-June to mid-August) 1989 and attached 11 g 2-stage transmitters to them. Each bird was followed 1-3 times each week for 1-3 hours until March 1990 when we retrapped the birds and removed the transmitters. During the time each bird was followed, we collected scats when possible. To locate fresh scats, we searched each foraging site or resting site after the bird flew away. We found scats in June 1989, in each month from August 1989 to March 1990, and in August 1990. The scats found 1 August 1990 were collected from the roost cavity of a pileated woodpecker. These probably had been defecated in July because the bird had been roosting in this cavity for several weeks, so we included this sample in July. Scats were difficult to collect in June and July because the birds were often feeding in the tops of trees, and scats were virtually impossible to find on the ground. The characteristic large size of the scat is unique to this woodpecker, and we used the technique of scat analysis described by Beckwith and Bull (1985). This technique primarily identifies arthropod parts because plant material may not be detected. We assumed that the mandibles and other arthropod remains in the scat represented the entire diet. We collected 330 samples: 313 were subsampled, 11 were used in a regression analysis, and 6 (32 individual scats) were collected from a roost. Each of 313 scat samples was dried for 12 hours at 300C and weighed to the nearest 0.001 g on an analytic balance. A subsample was taken for examination

Summertime Home Range and Habitat Use of Pileated Woodpeckers in Western Oregon

Current allocations of habitat for pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) on National Forests in the western United States may be inadequate because of previous methods used to calculate this species' home range. Hence, we used radio telemetry to determine home ranges (n=11) and habitat use (n=14) of pileated woodpeckers in the Coast Ranges of western Oregon during the summers of 1982-85. Home ranges for individual adult birds, after young had fledged, averaged 478 ha. Home ranges for pairs were larger than those reported in other studies

Causes of Mortality of Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Cavity Trees

Over a 13-year period we examined the mortality of cavity trees (n = 453) used by red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) on national forests in eastern Texas. Bark beetles (53%), wind snap (30%), and fire (7%) were the major causes of cavity tree mortality. Bark beetles were the major cause of mortality in loblolly (Pinus taeda) and shortleaf (P. echinata) pines, whereas fire was the major cause in longleaf pines (P. palustris). Cavity trees on the Angelina National Forest (NF) were dying at a higher rate than new, complete cavities were being excavated. Cavity enlargement by pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) on the Angelina NF was substantial, with 20% (49/ 249) of the cavity trees being enlarged over 7 years. To reduce cavity tree mortality, site disturbances in cluster areas (e.g., midstory control, prescribed burning, thinning) should be minimized during years when southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) populations are elevated. Careful planning of timber cutting to avoid funneling wind into cluster areas might reduce wind damage to cavity trees. The red-cockaded woodpecker has been legally defined as an endangered species since 1970 (35 Fed. Register 16047, 13 Oct 1970). A habitat feature that is essential for the survival 0~ this species is a constant supply of living, old Ptnes with decayed heartwood (Jackson 1977, Conner and Locke 1982) and large crowns and open boles that have had some suppression in their growth history (Conner and O'Halloran 1987). The woodpecker excavates nest and roost ~~ies. in these trees (U.S. Fish W ildl. Serv. S • Lrgon et al. 1986). In the southern United tates old · f h ' 1 . Cos ' pmes o t IS type are re atlvely rare. . ta and Escano (1989) indicated that suffictentl ld . sho Y 0 pmes for cavity excavation are in So ~supply on many national forests in the is ut and that the age structure of most forests lo~u~h that supply of old pines is likely to be lions ; >20 years. Recent declines in populaRudo~ ~ed-cockad.ed woodpeckers (Conner and lack r 1989) might be caused in part by a 0 old-growth pines in southern pine forests. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 55(3):531-537 Thus, to develop management options that reduce the loss of cavity trees, it is important to identify factors causing this loss. In our study, we evaluate mortality of cavity trees used by red-cockaded woodpeckers and suggest management options to reduce losses. We thankS. C. Loeb, P. Lorio, R. W. Mannan, F . L. Oliveria, and J. R. Walters for constructive comments on an early draft of the manuscript. Partial funding was provided by a Challenge Cost Share Agreement (#19-90-008) with the Resource Protection Division, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.

Active and Abandoned Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Habitat in Kentucky

We characterized composition, density, and structure of habitat occupied by red-cockaded wood-peckers (Picoides borealis) on the Daniel Boone National Forest (NF), Kentucky, and we compared areas surrounding active and abandoned cavity trees. Basal area of active colonies (22.7 m 2 /ha) was composed of 48% pine (chiefly Pinus echinata) and 52% nonpine (chiefly Quercus spp.); density (2,257 stems/ha) and hardwood abundance (88% of total stems) were much higher than recorded in red-cockaded habitat elsewhere. Stand characteristics did not differ between areas immediately surrounding active and abandoned trees, but areas surrounding abandoned colonies had lower percentages (P≤0.04) of habitat dominated by pine and pine-oak and greater percentages (P≤0.02) of stands that had been harvested. Damage to cavity trees by pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) was greater (P<0.002) on abandoned areas. The availability of suitable habitat was apparently the major limitation to red-cockaded woodpecker populations; hence management should emphasize the maintenance of, or increase in, the area occupied by mature stands of pine and pine-oak

Multi-model habitat suitability index analysis in the Red River Valley

Recent developments in habitat modeling have led to a situation where landscape architects, planners and wildlife biologists can study proposed landscape modifications and configurations simultaneously upon multiple species. Proposed development of the M.B. Johnson nature interpretive area in Clay County Minnesota illustrates this multi-model process. Nineteen species were studied: Blackcapped Chickadee (Parus atricapillus), Gray Partridge (Perdix perdix), Yellow warbler (Dendroica magna), Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens), Beaver (Castor canadensis), Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger), Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), Mink (Mustela vison), Pine Warbler (Dendroica pinus), Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), Red-winged Black-bird Agelaius phoeniceus), Great Blue Heron (Adrea herodias), Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus), Veery (Catharus fuscescens) and Belted Kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon). Landscape iterations were examined to increase species diversity as measured by fauna richness number, Simn's Index and Shannon-Weiner Index. In addition, aesthetic values, hydrological constraints, cost criteria and time-benefit criteria affected the development of the landscape. The modeling process led to the creation of a prairie-scape matrix, shrubland patches, cropland patches, wetland patch and additional woodland matrix features. The multi-modeling procedure is described as a decision tool, as a form giver, as an indicator of goal achievement, as a time saver, as a communication device and as a temporary technology. In addition, the multi-modeling procedure is described within a human behavioral context and within the political arena.

Nest tree use by primary cavity-nesting birds in south central British Columbia

Heartwood decay was the most important factor in nest tree selection by primary cavity-nesting birds in the Interior Douglas-fir Biogeoclimatic Zone of British Columbia. Of 243 active nests, most were in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera). Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and hybrid spruce (Picea engelmannii × glauca) were not used for nesting. Strong excavators (Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), and Hairy Woodpecker (Picoides villosus)) preferred to nest in live trembling aspen with heartwood decay. Weak excavators (Red-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus), and Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens)) preferred to nest in dead trees or dead tops of live trees. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker preferred to nest in trees larger than 30 cm diameter at breast height, and Pileated Woodpecker preferred trees larger than 40 cm diameter at breast height. No significant preference for nest tree diameter was detected for other species.

Evaluation of a guild approach to habitat assessment for forest-dwelling birds

The applicability of the Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP) was assessed for several nongame bird species in the central Adirondack Mountains of New York. Measures for 24 avian species and 33 associated habitat variables were collected during the summers of 1985 and 1986. The accuracy of four published Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) models was examined: pileated and downy woodpeckers, black-capped chickadee, and veery. Chickadee and veery models were judged successful and were then used to predict habitat quality for respective avian foragingguild members. The HSI model/guild approach provided poor predictors of habitat quality for ubiquitous and uncommon species. Information on relative abundance within the geographic region and specific cover types must be included when designing habitat evaluations using the guild approach.

Pileated Woodpeckers Nest in the Saskatoon District

Pileated Woodpeckers Nest in the Saskatoon District

Birds Lost from a Giant Sequoia Forest during Fifty Years

Not all forest bird species breeding on Redwood Mountain, Tulare County, California in the 1930s are still there in the 1980s. Over the 50 Years virgin aiant seauoia forest of the saddle and east slope (within Rings Canyon NationalPark) remains unchanged but has lost the Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus borealis). The mixture of old and secondgrowth sequoias of Whitaker’s Forest, where pines and undergrowth were removed and snags eliminated, is missing the Mountain Quail (Oreortyx pictus), Flammulated Owl (Otus flammeolus), Northern Pygmy-Owl (Glaucidium gnoma), Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis), Hairv Woodnecker (Picoides villosus). and Olive-sided Flvcatcher. Thouah unchanaed todav. the Xparian alders of Eshom Creek on the west slope have lost Swainso& Thrush~Catha& ustulatus). Drastic logging by Sequoia National Forest has driven all of the above from the west slope ponderosa pine forest that surrounds Whitaker’s Forest. New birds established at Whitaker’s Forest by 1986 are the Common Raven (Corvus corax), House Wren (Troglodytes aedon), and Lincoln’s Sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii). Intrusion of Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) has begun without yet affecting two abundant species of vireos. The Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) is reduced; the Winter Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) has greatly increased. I attempt to explain avifaunal changes by comparing habitats over the 50-year interval. Disappearance of the flycatcher and thrush from unchanged, prime habitat must be caused by destruction of corresponding forests in Central America, where these birds maintain their winter territories.

Foraging Behavior of Bark-Foraging Birds in the Sierra Nevada

Data on foraging behavior are often used for examining use of habitat and describing community structure among co-occurring species of birds using the same resource base (e.g., Johnson 1966, Eckhardt 1979, Rusterholz 1981). Differences in tree species, foliage morphology, and bark structure may influence the types of prey taken and the species of bird using the substrate (e.g., Jackson 1979, Holmes and Robinson 1981, Robinson and Holmes 1984). Elucidation of foraging behaviors and tree species preferences is important if we are to determine the role of birds in forest ecosystems, and make informed decisions regarding management of these forests. In this study we describe the use of tree species, foraging modes, and foraging substrates by a group (or guild, sensu Root 1967) of bark-foraging birds breeding in the western Sierra Nevada. A similar study on foliage insectivores was conducted previously near our study area (see Airola and Barrett 1985). The species analyzed, in order of decreasing abundance, were: Red-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), Brown Creeper (Certhia americana), Red-breasted Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber), White-headed Woodpecker (Picoides albolarvatus), Hairy Woodpecker (P. villosus), and Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) (see Morrison et al. 1986). All are typical inhabitants of coniferous forests in the Sierra Nevada (Grinnell and Miller 1944). The Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) and Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus) occurred rarely in our study area and are not analyzed herein. STUDY AREA

Invertebrate Use of Natural Tree Cavities and Vertebrate Nest Boxes

Thirty-nine taxa of invertebrates used nest boxes and natural cavities in three mid-South forest habitats. Twelve of the 16 genera identified used nest boxes more frequently than natural cavities. Only carpenter ants (Camponotus sp.) (Formicidae) and termites (Kalotermitidae) used natural cavities more frequently than nest boxes. Wood roaches (Parcoblatta spp.) (Blattidae), southern green stink bugs (Nezara viridula L.) (Pentatomidae) and paper wasps (Polistes spp.) (Vespidae) were the most common invertebrates found in nest boxes. Four species exhibited preference for one or more of 16 characteristics of cavities and the surrounding habitat. Greater use of nest boxes than natural cavities by invertebrates may be due to a desirable nest box microclimate. INTRODUCTION Natural tree cavities are used as nesting, resting or feeding sites by many species of invertebrates; but availability of natural cavities is decreasing because bottomland hardwood forests are being replaced with soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill), and plantations of eastern cottonwoods (Populus deltoides Marsh.) and American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.), and upland forests are being more intensively managed for timber production. Removal of trees with natural cavities in a stand removes the habitat necessary for invertebrates which require natural cavities, thereby reducing their populations and perhaps the populations of their predators. Maintenance of some natural cavities in a stand may be necessary to provide habitat for invertebrates which could be important food sources for other wildlife such as carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) (Formicidae) for pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus L.) (Conner et al., 1975). Nest boxes can supplement natural cavities for many cavity-using species (Bellrose et al., 1964; Nixon and Donohoe, 1979; McComb, 1979). A few investigators have reported use of nest boxes or natural cavities by invertebrates (McAtee, 1931; Nicholson, 1941; Allen, 1952; Klein, 1955; Flyger and Cooper, 1967), but no one has quantified invertebrate use of nest boxes and natural cavities. It is important that invertebrate use of artificial and natural cavities be quantified so habitat loss by cutting of cavity-bearing trees, as well as the benefits of box erection, can be assessed on the basis of all terrestrial fauna, and not just vertebrates, as is so frequently the case. The objectives of this study were: (1) to compare use of nest boxes with use of natural cavities in a bottomland hardwood stand, a cottonwood plantation and an upland pine-hardwood stand, and (2) to determine what -cavity characteristics were important to cavity-using invertebrates. STUDY AREAS A mature, mixed bottomland hardwood stand (Ben Hur) located on Louisiana State University Ben Hur Research Farm, East Baton Rouge Parish, La., was used as one habitat type. The overstory is dominated by water oak (Quercus nigra L.), pignut hickory (Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet), American elm (Ulmus americana L.), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata (Willd.) and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.); the midstory by box elder (Acer negundo L.) and bluebeech (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.); the understory by switch cane (Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl.) and poison ivy (Rhus radicans L.). Ben Hur is an unmanaged forest protected from backwater flooding by the Mississippi River levee system. 'Present address: Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546.

Ecology of Mediorhynchus centurorum Host Specificity

Host specificity of Mediorhynchus centurorum for Melanerpes carolinus is thought to result from differences in nesting sites, nest sanitation, foraging behavior, and food items among woodpeckers (Picidae). Location of nests in dead limbs with intact bark and gleaning techniques in foraging make woodroaches, intermediate hosts of M. centurorum, a principal dietary item of Red-bellied Woodpeckers. The original description of Mediorhynchus centurorum reported a high degree of specificity for the vertebrate host. A survey of 68 avian species in 30 families revealed M. centurorum only in Red-bellied Woodpeckers, Melanerpes carolinus (= Centurus carolinus), although seven other species of woodpeckers were examined, including four from a small area where 10 of 16 M. carolinus found were infected (Nickol, 1969). Later, in demonstrating the life cycle of M. centurorum, cystacanths from woodroaches, the intermediate host, fed to four species of woodpecker resulted in patent infection of every bird (Nickol, 1977). Studies reported in this paper were undertaken to determine ecological factors that may have restricted the acanthocephalan species to Red-bellied Woodpeckers in the wild. MATERIALS AND METHODS Woodroaches (Parcoblatta pensylvanica) were collected from the vicinity of a small swamp in Iberville Parish, Louisiana, where Mediorhynchus centurorum occurred in more than 60% of the Red-bellied Woodpeckers. The prevalence of infection of woodroaches was determined for each site from which they were collected. Activities of woodpeckers at nests in Mississippi and Kansas were studied by procedures described by Jackson (1970a, 1976, 1977). Food items brought to nestlings were identified either from the ground with a 20X spotting scope or by observation from blinds through openings into nests. Frequency data were analyzed using the chisquare test, and a Student's t-test was used to compare sets of measurements. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The distribution of larvae of Mediorhynchus centurorum in woodroaches was studied in a small, densely wooded swamp and surrounding pasture with scattered willow trees. Roaches were abundant under bark of dead limbs and fallen branches in both the swamp and pastu e. None of 139 from the swamp was infected with M. centurorum, whereas 8 of 89 from the pasture harbored larvae of that acanthocephalan. Because of all nests of Redbellied Woodpeckers were in the pasture and those of other woodpecker species of the area (Colaptes auratus, Dryocopus pileatus, and Picoides pubescens) were in the swamp, it seemed likely that parasite transmission to Redbellied Woodpeckers and woodroaches occurred at the nest sites. Red-bellied Woodpeckers do not practice strict nest sanitation; feces mixed with wood chips and bits of lost food in the dampness of the nest cavity make it an ideal chamber for survival of parasite eggs and woodroaches. Red-bellied Woodpeckers foraged around their nests and with other woodpecker species in the swamp. Apparently eggs are not sufficiently concentrated away from nests for woodroaches to become infected in appreciable numbers. Woodroach fragments were found in alimentary tracts of some individuals of all species examined from the area, but spatial separation of nesting sites and lack of nest sanitation are thought to be factors operative in the specificity exhibited by M. centurorum. In an attempt to identify ecological factors more precisely, nesting and foraging activities of Red-bellied Woodpeckers were compared with those of Red-headed Woodpeckers, Melanerpes erythrocephalus, because the two are closely related, similar in size, and nest along edges of forests rather than within them, and locate nests in limbs of similar diameters and heights (Jackson, 1976). Moreover, Nickol (1977) showed that Red-headed Woodpeckers are susceptible to laboratory infection with Received for publication 3 January 1978. * Department of Zoology, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762. ti School of Life Sciences, University of NebraskaLincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588.

Habitat Requirements of the Pileated Woodpecker in Northeastern Oregon

Abstract Nesting, feeding, and territorial activities of the pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus L.) were observed in the spring and summer of 1973 and 1974 in northeastern Oregon. The 13 nests found in a 28,000-acre area were in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.) and western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) snags greater than 23 inches in d.b.h. Pileated woodpeckers fed primarily in dead wood in snags, logs, and naturally created stumps. Both nest trees and feeding sites were in concentrations of snags and in the most dense forest types. Minimum nesting territories were estimated at 320 acres.

Faulkner's Lord-to-God Bird in "The Bear"

A S IKE MCCASLIN and Sam Fathers await a glimpse of Old Ben in Faulkner's Bear, they hear big woodpecker called Lord-to-God by negroes feeding nearby.1 Its sudden silence indicates Old Ben's invisible presence, its resumed clattering, the bear's inaudible departure. The bird is probably a Pileated woodpecker, a very large bird with striking, primordial features. Its local names-Lord-to-God bird, God-A-Mighty bird, Lord-God birdindicate the spontaneous awe its sudden appearance usually evokes. However, the woodpecker may be the rare Ivorybill, uncommon even in Old Ben's woods. Faulkner's choice of the Lord-to-God bird as a harbinger of Old Ben's presence is hardly capricious; he knows his woodlore. His Pileated's habitat and feeding habits are ornithologically accurate. The bird usually requires river-bottom terrain with many dead oaks and gums (Ike stands by a large gum; the bird feeds on a dead tree). Furthermore, the Pileated takes on much of Old Ben's rich symbolism. Like Old Ben, it is physically awesome, wonderrully mysterious, relatively uncommon. It, too, is associated with the old ways, endangered because of man's encroachment on stands of virgin forests. According to the respected naturalists James T. Tanner and Herbert L. Stoddard, some Indian tribes revered the Pileated's mysterious grandeur and used it for ritualistic relics as well as for food. They also report that white hunters sometimes shot the bird out of a kind of wild curiosity,2 much as Faulkner's swampers go after Old Ben on the final hunt. Faulkner's Lord-to-God bird, like his old bear, comes to symbolize the doom of the old order that is associated with Sam Fathers and the Big Woods; it, like Old Ben, is both literally and symbolically a kind of anachronism in the plebeian world of Boon Hoggenbeck and the omniverous logging companies.

Woodpecker Nesting Habitat in Cut and Uncut Woodlands in Virginia

In forest areas common flickers (Colaptes auratus) nested only in dead snags in 1to 12year-old clearcuts. Pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) nested in mature, dense stands with high basal area, and downy woodpeckers (Dendrocopos pubescens) nested in sparsely stocked stands with lower basal area. The hairy woodpecker (D. villosus) nested in stands intermediate to and overlapping the habitats selected by the pileated and downy woodpeckers. All nest cavities of the four species of woodpeckers were excavated in decayed wood of trees infected by fungal heart rots. Timber management may be detrimental to woodpeckers if all decayed trees are removed. Uncut filter strips along streams and roads appear to be of value as woodpecker nesting habitat. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(1):144-150 Optimum management of a forest for multiple benefits to humans requires intelligent coordination of practices. Little information exists for many nongame species of wildlife which will permit the forest manager to coordinate wildlife and timber management practices. This investigation was conducted to determine if the common flicker and the downy, hairy, and pileated woodpeckers on the Jefferson National Forest in Virginia had specific requirements for nest trees and the surrounding habitat or if they utilized a wide range of conditions.

Dirt-Bathing by a Pileated Woodpecker

Dirt-Bathing by a Pileated Woodpecker