Phylogenetic Endemism Research Articles

Hotspots within a hotspot: evolutionary measures unveil interesting biogeographic patterns in threatened coastal forests in Chile

Abstract Given the continuous loss of biodiversity, there is an urgent need to study its patterns to generate conservation measures. Complementing traditional biodiversity measures with indices that incorporate evolutionary aspects such as phylogenetic diversity or phylogenetic endemism (PD or PE) allows us to infer possible historical processes that could explain the conformation of current biodiversity. In this study, patterns of richness and endemism were determined and contrasted with the evolutionary indices PD, PE, PDres (residual PD), RPD (relative PD) and RPE (relative PE) for the woody flora in a latitudinal gradient (30°S to 40°S) in the Chilean coastal range. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using three DNA regions to calculate evolutionary indices (PD and PE) and compare them at different taxonomic levels. The results of PD and PE were spatially consistent with those of richness and endemism, but evolutionarily important sites were discovered. PD-derived indices indicate three evolutionary hotspots: a cradle-type site with a predominance of neoendemics (generating recent diversity) at 33°S, three museum-type sites with a predominance of palaeoendemics (maintaining relict diversity) at 30°S, 38°S and 40°S and one with high PD and PE at 37°S. We found evolutionary hotspots within the hotspot of Central Chile with different characteristics. Incorporating measures that consider the evolutionary aspect has important implications for the conservation of highly diverse and endemic areas.

Optimized Plant Diversity and Carbon Storage for Priority Protection Areas in China

Biodiversity and carbon storage are two key ecosystem functions that are crucial to protect and maintain ecosystem balance. However, there is often little overlap between hotspots for these two different conservation purposes. Additionally, it is not well understood how these different spatial metrics affect these functions in protected ecosystems in China. Here, we explored the relationships between plant diversity metrics and carbon storage by using a large vascular plant distribution dataset, as well as soil fragile organic carbon and biomass carbon datasets in specific spatial areas across China. We also defined priority protection areas (PPAs) using a conservation prioritization method, where 30% of the study areas displayed the highest combined conservation value in carbon storage and plant species richness (SR), phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE) and evolutionary distinctness (ED). Our results indicated that the correlations between biodiversity metrics and carbon storage were very weak in spatial relationship. However, by including both of these functions in conservation targets, the PPAs could account for more than 95% of the species and evolutionary diversity (PD, ED), and stored large amounts of carbon. Additionally, we broadly divided the PPAs into win–win, high plant diversity, and high carbon areas based on the overlap of biodiversity and carbon storage hotspots. Altogether, our results highlight the importance of understanding and optimizing conservation efforts for different ecosystem functions in different PPAs. Ultimately, this work establishes an urgent need to expand protection in these areas to support mutual biodiversity and carbon storage beneficial solutions.

Transitional areas of vegetation as biodiversity hotspots evidenced by multifaceted biodiversity analysis of a dominant group in Chinese evergreen broad-leaved forests

Species in transitional areas often display adaptive responses to climate change and such areas may be crucial for long-term biodiversity conservation. Evaluation of spatial multidimensional biodiversity patterns and the identification of biodiversity hotspots and priority conservation areas may help mitigate the effects of climate change. Here, we examine the spatial distribution patterns, evolutionary and functional levels of Lauraceae from Chinese evergreen broad-leaved forests. The results show species richness (SR), corrected weighted endemism (CWE), phylogenetic diversity (PD), and phylogenetic endemism (PE) for Chinese Lauraceae are congruent, whereas evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered (EDGE) and function diversity (FD) are incongruent. Areas of paleo-endemism are present in the border region of Yunnan and Guangxi, whereas neo-endemic regions are distributed mainly along the Yarlung Zangbo River and the Himalayas in southern Tibet. Priority conservation areas are located in southern Tibet, the northern Hengduan Mountains, the north–south boundary of Qinling and Huaihe River, southern and south-eastern Yunnan, and south China. Biodiversity hotspots for Chinese Lauraceae overlap with transitional zones for several other vegetation types in adjacent areas. Climate factors are estimated to account for 82.72% of the SR and 86.86% of the PD for Lauraceae spatial distribution patterns, reflecting higher diversity under warmer and wetter conditions. This study confirms the conservation value of transitional areas and the significance of using multiple diversity facets as part of integrative approaches to maximize biodiversity protection in Chinese broad-leaved forests, especially under climate change.

Geographic patterns and environmental correlates of taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of aquatic plants in China

AbstractStudies on large‐scale geographic patterns of aquatic plant diversity can promote research on the generality of macroecological patterns in different ecosystems. Here, we compiled a checklist of 889 aquatic angiosperms in China, including 738 helophytes (emergent and marshy plants) and 151 hydrophytes (submerged, free‐floating, and floating‐leaved plants). We explore the geographic patterns and environmental correlates of aquatic plant diversity based on six metrics including species richness (SR), weighted endemism (WE), phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE), the standardized effect size of phylogenetic diversity (PDses), and the standardized effect size of mean phylogenetic distance (MPDses). Our results show that the diversity of aquatic plants in China is extremely uneven, with high diversity in southeastern China and low diversity in northwestern China, and the geographic patterns of taxonomic and PD are generally consistent. The pattern of helophytes differs from that of hydrophytes. Notably, the wavy‐shaped pattern of aquatic plant diversity (especially SR and PD for hydrophytes) across the latitude observed in this study is not consistent with those previously observed for aquatic plants in other continents. Climatic variables and water environmental variables are the main drivers of aquatic plant diversity in China; however, the effects of individual variables differ between helophytes and hydrophytes. Water environmental variables have a greater impact on PDses and MPDses of hydrophytes than those of helophytes. Overall, our work provides insight into understanding the large‐scale patterns of aquatic plant diversity and is a critical addition to previous studies on the macroecological pattern of terrestrial organisms.

Landscape dynamics and diversification of the megadiverse South American freshwater fish fauna

Landscape dynamics are widely thought to govern the tempo and mode of continental radiations, yet the effects of river network rearrangements on dispersal and lineage diversification remain poorly understood. We integrated an unprecedented occurrence dataset of 4,967 species with a newly compiled, time-calibrated phylogeny of South American freshwater fishes-the most species-rich continental vertebrate fauna on Earth-to track the evolutionary processes associated with hydrogeographic events over 100 Ma. Net lineage diversification was heterogeneous through time, across space, and among clades. Five abrupt shifts in net diversification rates occurred during the Paleogene and Miocene (between 30 and 7 Ma) in association with major landscape evolution events. Net diversification accelerated from the Miocene to the Recent (c. 20 to 0 Ma), with Western Amazonia having the highest rates of insitu diversification, which led to it being an important source of species dispersing to other regions. All regional biotic interchanges were associated with documented hydrogeographic events and the formation of biogeographic corridors, including the Early Miocene (c. 23 to 16 Ma) uplift of the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira and the Late Miocene (c. 10 Ma) uplift of the Northern Andes and associated formation of the modern transcontinental Amazon River. The combination of high diversification rates and extensive biotic interchange associated with Western Amazonia yielded its extraordinary contemporary richness and phylogenetic endemism. Our results support the hypothesis that landscape dynamics, which shaped the history of drainage basin connections, strongly affected the assembly and diversification of basin-wide fish faunas.

Environmental and topographic drivers of amphibian phylogenetic diversity and endemism in the Iberian Peninsula.

Understanding the ecological and evolutionary processes driving biodiversity patterns and allowing their persistence is of utmost importance. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain spatial diversity patterns, including water-energy availability, habitat heterogeneity, and historical climatic refugia. The main goal of this study is to identify if general spatial drivers of species diversity patterns of phylogenetic diversity (PD) and phylogenetic endemism (PE) at the global scale are also predictive of PD and PE at regional scales, using Iberian amphibians as a case study. Our main hypothesis assumes that topography along with contemporary and historical climate are drivers of phylogenetic diversity and endemism, but that the strength of these predictors may be weaker at the regional scale than it tends to be at the global scale. We mapped spatial patterns of Iberian amphibians' phylogenetic diversity and endemism, using previously published phylogenetic and distribution data. Furthermore, we compiled spatial data on topographic and climatic variables related to the water-energy availability, topography, and historical climatic instability hypotheses. To test our hypotheses, we used Spatial Autoregressive Models and selected the best model to explain diversity patterns based on Akaike Information Criterion. Our results show that, out of the variables tested in our study, water-energy availability and historical climate instability are the most important drivers of amphibian diversity in Iberia. However, as predicted, the strength of these predictors in our case study is weaker than it tends to be at global scales. Thus, additional drivers should also be investigated and we suggest caution when interpreting these predictors as surrogates for different components of diversity.

Evolutionary history of marginal habitats regulates the diversity of tree communities in the Atlantic Forest.

The Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot is a complex mosaic of habitat types. However, the diversity of the rain forest at the core of this complex has received far more attention than that of its marginal habitats, such as cloud forest, semi-deciduous forest or restinga. Here, we investigate broad-scale angiosperm tree diversity patterns along elevation gradients in the south-east Atlantic Forest and test if the diversity of marginal habitats is shaped from the neighbouring rain forest, as commonly thought. We calculated phylogenetic indices that capture basal [mean pairwise phylogenetic distance (MPD)] and terminal [mean nearest taxon distance (MNTD)] phylogenetic variation, phylogenetic endemism (PE) and taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity (BD and PBD) for 2074 angiosperm tree species distributed in 108 circular sites of 10 km diameter across four habitat types i.e. rain forest, cloud forest, semi-deciduous forest and coastal vegetation known as restinga. We then related these metrics to elevation and environmental variables. Communities in wetter and colder forests show basal phylogenetic overdispersion and short phylogenetic distances towards the tips, respectively. In contrast, communities associated with water deficit and salinity show basal phylogenetic clustering and no phylogenetic structure toward the tips. Unexpectedly, rain forest shows low PE given its species richness, whereas cloud and semi-deciduous forests show unusually high PE. The BD and PBD between most habitat types are driven by the turnover of species and lineages, except for restinga. Our results contradict the idea that all marginal habitat types of the Atlantic Forest are sub-sets of the rain forest. We show that marginal habitat types have different evolutionary histories and may act as 'equilibrium zones for biodiversity' in the Atlantic Forest, generating new species or conserving others. Overall, our results add evolutionary insights that reinforce the urgency of encompassing all habitat types in the Atlantic Forest concept.

A comprehensive evaluation of flowering plant diversity and conservation priority for national park planning in China

Establishment of a national park protection system in China, including the latest target proposed to protect at least 30% of the land area, calls for a comprehensive exploration of conservation priorities incorporating multiple diversity facets. We herein evaluate the spatial distribution of Chinese flowering plants from the perspectives of richness, uniqueness, vulnerability, and evolutionary history, by integrating three mega-phylogenies and comprehensive distribution data. We detect significantly high consistency among hotspots of different diversity measures for Chinese flowering plants, suggesting that multiple facets of evolutionary diversity are concentrically distributed in China. Affording legal protection to these areas is expected to maximize positive conservation outcomes. We propose two integrative diversity indices by incorporating three richness-based and three phylogeny-based measures, respectively. Both methods identify areas with high species richness, but the integrative phylogeny-based index also locates key areas with ancient and unique evolutionary histories (e.g., Ailao-Wuliang Mts, Dabie Mts, Hainan rainforest, Karst area of Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi, Nanling Mts, and southeast coastal regions). Of all the diversity indices explored, phylogenetic endemism maximizes the incidental protection of other indices in most cases, emphasizing its significance for conservation planning. Finally, 42 priority areas are identified by combining the 5%-criterion hotspots of two integrative indices and the minimum area to protect all threatened species analyzed. These priorities cover only 13.3% of China's land area, but host 97.1% of species richness (23,394/24,095), 96.5% of endemic species (11,841/12,274), 100% of threatened species (2,613/2,613), and 99.3% of phylogenetic diversity for flowering plants involved in this study. These frameworks provide a solid scientific basis for national park planning in China.

Spatial phylogenetic patterns in the North American moss flora are shaped by history and climate

AbstractAimWe documented patterns of phylogenetic diversity (PD) and phylogenetic endemism (PE) in the moss flora of North America, determined how environmental variables explain these patterns, compared the patterns in mosses to known patterns in angiosperms and explored how patterns driven by sub‐clades might conflict with patterns driven by other sub‐clades.LocationNorth America north of Mexico.TaxonMosses (Bryophyta).MethodsA maximum‐likelihood tree inferred from publicly available sequence data and locality data from ca. 7.5 × 105 herbarium specimens were combined to build a dataset of 935 species (representing ca. 67% of the known moss flora). Spatial randomization procedures were used to find significance levels of PD and relative phylogenetic diversity (RPD) for the full dataset and three major sub‐clades, as well as to carry out a categorical analysis of Neo‐ and Paleo‐endemism (CANAPE). Range weighted turnover in both species and PE was used to identify phytogeographic regions across the continent. Ordinations of environmental data were used to determine the distribution of PD, RPD, and phytogeographic regions within environmental space. Results of this study were compared to known patterns of phylodiversity in angiosperms.ResultsPhylodiversity is distributed non‐randomly. Some patterns, for example, long branches in the southeastern US, are consistent with angiosperms; however, there are strong contrasts as well. Overall patterns of PD and RPD are strongly influenced by different phylogenetic scales within mosses, indicating that signal from one clade can obscure patterns in others. Three primary phytogeographic zones are defined by both differing geological histories and differing current abiotic conditions. Phytogeographic regions, PD, and RPD are all aligned with environmental variables.Main conclusionsThere is evidence for both ecological and historical factors in shaping the moss flora of North America, and biogeographic differences between angiosperms and mosses appear to align with important life‐history differences between the two groups.

Spatial phylogenetics of Japanese ferns: Patterns, processes, and implications for conservation.

PremiseBiodiversity is often only measured with species richness; however, this metric ignores evolutionary history and is not sufficient for making conservation decisions. Here, we characterize multiple facets and drivers of biodiversity to understand how these relate to bioregions and conservation status in the ferns of Japan.MethodsWe compiled a community data set of 1239 grid cells (20 × 20 km each) including 672 taxa based on >300,000 specimen records. We combined the community data with a phylogeny and functional traits to analyze taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity and modeled biodiversity metrics in response to environmental factors and reproductive mode. Hierarchical clustering was used to delimit bioregions. Conservation status and threats were assessed by comparing the overlap of significantly diverse grid cells with conservation zones and range maps of native Japanese deer.ResultsTaxonomic richness was highest at mid‐latitudes. Phylogenetic and functional diversity and phylogenetic endemism were highest in small southern islands. Relative phylogenetic and functional diversity were high at high and low latitudes, and low at mid‐latitudes. Grid cells were grouped into three (phylogenetic) or four (taxonomic) major bioregions. Temperature and apomixis were identified as drivers of biodiversity patterns. Conservation status was generally high for grid cells with significantly high biodiversity, but the threat due to herbivory by deer was greater for taxonomic richness than other metrics.ConclusionsOur integrative approach reveals previously undetected patterns and drivers of biodiversity in the ferns of Japan. Future conservation efforts should recognize that threats can vary by biodiversity metric and consider multiple metrics when establishing conservation priorities.

Phylogenetic endemism of the orchids of Megamexico reveals complementary areas for conservation

Orchid diversity provides a unique opportunity to further our understanding of biotic and abiotic factors linked to patterns of richness, endemism, and phylogenetic endemism in many regions. However, orchid diversity is consistently threatened by illegal trade and habitat transformation. Here, we identified areas critical for orchid conservation in the biogeographic province of Megamexico. For this purpose, we evaluated orchid endemism, phylogenetic diversity, and phylogenetic endemism within Megamexico and characterized orchid life forms. Our results indicate that the majority of the regions with the highest estimates of endemism and phylogenetic endemism are in southern Mexico and northern Central America, mostly located on the Pacific side of Megamexico. Among the most important orchid lineages, several belong to epiphytic lineages such as Pleurothallidinae, Laeliinae and Oncidiinae. We also found that species from diverse and distantly related lineages converge in montane forests where suitable substrates for epiphytes abound. Furthermore, the southernmost areas of phylogenetic diversity and endemism of Megamexico are in unprotected areas. Thus, we conclude that the most critical areas for orchid conservation in Megamexico are located in southern Mexico and northern Central America. We recommend that these areas should be given priority by the Mexican system of natural protected areas as complementary conservation areas.

A global analysis of mosses reveals low phylogenetic endemism and highlights the importance of long‐distance dispersal

AbstractAimDigitization of herbarium specimens and DNA sequencing efforts in the past decade have enabled integrative analyses of patterns of diversity and endemism in a phylogenetic context. Here, we compare the best available floristic databases to a comprehensive specimen database to examine spatial patterns of moss phylogenetic assembly. We test the hypotheses that (1) mosses exhibit phylogenetic regionalization, (2) islands contain significantly high phylogenetic diversity and (3) that moss phylogenetic endemism is low on a global scale.LocationGlobal.TaxonMosses.MethodsWe developed a phylogeny of 3654 moss species using 25 markers and compiled a global specimen database from online repositories. We calculated floristic and phylogenetic measures of diversity and endemism and performed randomizations to test for significant deviations from expectations. We use rarefaction and extrapolation to alleviate substantial differences in sampling effort across the globe. We used both phylogenetic and floristic methods to test for spatial regionalization. We compare our specimen‐based results to those obtained using a floristic dataset.ResultsPhylogenetic diversity is more robust to missing data than species richness. Mean phylogenetic distance was significantly higher than expected in areas with high species richness, indicating that reported richness in these areas is likely a product of repeated colonization. Phylogenetic endemism is low globally. Phylogenetic regionalizations cluster into a Holarctic/Holantarctic temperate region, a pantropical region, and a region composed of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.Main ConclusionsFuture efforts for collecting, sequencing and databasing moss species should focus on the tropics, particularly Africa and Southeast Asia. We provide further evidence to support several important theories developed in moss biogeography, including the role of long‐distance dispersal in shaping floristic patterns, the dominance of anagenesis in driving patterns of island diversity, and the role of climatic instability in driving patterns of assembly in the Holarctic.

Spatial phylogenetics of the Chinese angiosperm flora provides insights into endemism and conservation.

The flora of China is well known for its high diversity and endemism. Identifying centers of endemism and designating conservation priorities are essential goals for biodiversity studies. However, there is no comprehensive study from a rigorous phylogenetic perspective to understand patterns of diversity and endemism and to guide biodiversity conservation in China. We conducted a spatial phylogenetic analysis of the Chinese angiosperm flora at the generic level to identify centers of neo- and paleo-endemism. Our results indicate that: (i) the majority of grid cells in China with significantly high phylogenetic endemism (PE) were located in the mountainous regions; (ii) four of the nine centers of endemism recognized, located in northern and western China, were recognized for the first time; (iii) arid and semiarid regions in Northwest China were commonly linked to significant PE, consistent with other spatial phylogenetic studies worldwide; and (iv) six high-priority conservation gaps were detected by overlaying the boundaries of China's nature reserves on all significant PE cells. Overall, we conclude that the mountains of southern and northern China contain both paleo-endemics (ancient relictual lineages) and neo-endemics (recently diverged lineages). The areas we highlight as conservation priorities are important for broad-scale planning, especially in the context of evolutionary history preservation.

Spatial patterns of phylogenetic diversity and endemism in the Western Ghats, India: A case study using ancient predatory arthropods.

The Western Ghats (WG) mountain chain in peninsular India is a global biodiversity hotspot, one in which patterns of phylogenetic diversity and endemism remain to be documented across taxa. We used a well‐characterized community of ancient soil predatory arthropods from the WG to understand diversity gradients, identify hotspots of endemism and conservation importance, and highlight poorly studied areas with unique biodiversity. We compiled an occurrence dataset for 19 species of scolopendrid centipedes, which was used to predict areas of habitat suitability using bioclimatic and geomorphological variables in Maxent. We used predicted distributions and a time‐calibrated species phylogeny to calculate taxonomic and phylogenetic indices of diversity, endemism, and turnover. We observed a decreasing latitudinal gradient in taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity in the WG, which supports expectations from the latitudinal diversity gradient. The southern WG had the highest phylogenetic diversity and endemism, and was represented by lineages with long branch lengths as observed from relative phylogenetic diversity/endemism. These results indicate the persistence of lineages over evolutionary time in the southern WG and are consistent with predictions from the southern WG refuge hypothesis. The northern WG, despite having low phylogenetic diversity, had high values of phylogenetic endemism represented by distinct lineages as inferred from relative phylogenetic endemism. The distinct endemic lineages in this subregion might be adapted to life in lateritic plateaus characterized by poor soil conditions and high seasonality. Sites across an important biogeographic break, the Palghat Gap, broadly grouped separately in comparisons of species turnover along the WG. The southern WG and Nilgiris, adjoining the Palghat Gap, harbor unique centipede communities, where the causal role of climate or dispersal barriers in shaping diversity remains to be investigated. Our results highlight the need to use phylogeny and distribution data while assessing diversity and endemism patterns in the WG.

Environmental Drivers of Diversification and Hybridization in Neotropical Butterflies

Studying how the environment shapes current biodiversity patterns in species rich regions is a fundamental issue in biogeography, ecology, and conservation. However, in the Neotropics, the study of the forces driving species distribution and richness, is mostly based on vertebrates and plants. In this study, we used 54,392 georeferenced records for 46 species and 1,012 georeferenced records for 38 interspecific hybrids of the Neotropical Heliconius butterflies to investigate the role of the environment in shaping their distribution and richness, as well as their geographic patterns of phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism. We also evaluated whether niche similarity promotes hybridization in Heliconius. We found that these insects display five general distribution patterns mostly explained by precipitation and isothermality, and to a lesser extent, by altitude. Interestingly, altitude plays a major role as a predictor of species richness and phylogenetic diversity, while precipitation explains patterns of phylogenetic endemism. We did not find evidence supporting the role of the environment in facilitating hybridization because hybridizing species do not necessarily share the same climatic niche despite some of them having largely overlapping geographic distributions. Overall, we confirmed that, as in other organisms, high annual temperature, a constant supply of water, and spatio-topographic complexity are the main predictors of diversity in Heliconius. However, future studies at large scale need to investigate the effect of microclimate variables and ecological interactions.

Seen only once: an evolutionarily distinct species of Toadlet (Uperoleia: Myobatrachidae) from the Wessel Islands of northern Australia.

There is a high rate of recent species discovery in remote regions of northern Australia, especially for amphibians and reptiles. The Wessel Islands, located in the northeastern corner of the Northern Territory, has recently been identified as a region of high species and phylogenetic endemism based on samples collected during the sole reptile and amphibian survey there in 1993. Using a phylogenetic approach, we describe a new, evolutionarily distinct species of Uperoleia endemic to the Wessel Islands. This description is based on three specimens, one female and two juveniles, which represent the only confirmed vouchers of the species. Due to the low number of specimens, this new species cannot be diagnosed morphologically from other closely related Uperoleia, and nothing is currently known about the mating call or basic biology. The discovery of this species provides further evidence for the islands importance as an area of endemism and identifies an urgent need for further surveys to document the unique biological diversity of the Wessel Islands.

Global determinants and conservation of evolutionary and geographic rarity in land vertebrates.

Deciphering global trends in phylogenetic endemism is crucial for understanding broad-scale evolutionary patterns and the conservation of key elements of biodiversity. However, knowledge to date on global phylogenetic endemism and its determinants has been lacking. Here, we conduct the first global analysis of phylogenetic endemism patterns of land vertebrates (>30,000 species), their environmental correlates, and threats. We found that low temperature seasonality and high topographic heterogeneity were the main global determinants of phylogenetic endemism. While phylogenetic endemism hotspots cover 22% of Earth, these regions currently have a high human footprint, low natural land cover, minimal protection, and will be greatly affected by climate change. Evolutionarily unique, narrow-range species are crucial for sustaining biodiversity in the face of environmental change. Our global study advances the current understanding of this imperilled yet previously overlooked facet of biodiversity.

Sampling units derived from geopolitical boundaries bias biodiversity analyses

AbstractAimSampling decisions are known to influence the estimation and interpretation of biodiversity. The use of geopolitical and administrative boundaries (GABs) for mapping biodiversity variables and identifying hotspots has a long history in biogeography and conservation biology. However, potential biases associated with these units and their effects on conservation decisions has not been adequately explored.LocationGlobal.Time period21,000 years ago to present day.Major taxa studiedAmphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles.MethodsI calculated biodiversity metrics for four major taxa at eight different spatial resolutions to understand scale‐dependencies. I then compared these estimates to those using GABs (e.g., countries and other large units) as sampling units. I also used both grid‐ and GAB‐based sampling designs to model the relationship between biodiversity patterns and relevant climate variables.ResultsLarger sampling units led to higher estimates of species richness and phylogenetic diversity. Taxonomic and phylogenetic endemism remained relatively stable across scales due to competing biases related to grain size and estimation of range size. Using GABs led to both under‐ and overestimation of endemism when compared to fine‐resolution grid‐based estimates, with differences varying across space and taxonomic groups. Importantly, using GABs resulted in different locations being identified as biodiversity hotspots when compared to grid‐based analyses. Likewise, different climate drivers of species richness and endemism were identified when using a GAB‐ versus grid‐based sampling design.Main conclusionsUsing GABs will remain an important method for mapping variation in biodiversity metrics across the globe. However, appropriate understanding of the biases associated with these and other ad‐hoc sampling designs should be better understood and accounted for in macroecology analyses, including for understanding environmental drivers of biodiversity patterns and identifying local and regional diversity hotspots. This is especially true for measures of diversity that incorporate species range size, such as taxonomic and phylogenetic endemism.

Phylogenetic Endemism Hotspots of North American Birds Are Associated With Warm Temperatures and Long- and Short-Term Climate Stability

Human activities have dramatically altered the distribution and abundance of species, and our impacts are likely to increase in the near future. Conservation efforts are typically faced with scarce resources, forcing us to prioritize areas based in part on estimates of their conservation value. Two major factors in conservation value are a species uniqueness and its extinction risk. Though these ideas are multidimensional, one important component of uniqueness is evolutionary distinctness, while risk is strongly related to geographic range size. These components are combined in an assemblage-level measure called phylogenetic endemism (PE), which measures the degree to which the species in an assemblage are small-ranged and phylogenetically distinct. Broad-scale patterns and correlates of PE are becoming better known for a variety of groups, and have been shown to depend on current climate, geographic isolation and long-term climate stability. Human impacts (e.g., land cover changes), are likely to shape PE as well, though the coarse resolution of most previous studies may make this difficult to detect. Overall, PE patterns at fine spatial and temporal resolutions are not well understood. Here, we fill this gap using data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey. These data comprise a long-term annual record with fine spatial resolution and a near-continental extent. We assess geographic patterns and trends in PE, and relate these to a range of putative predictor variables including measures of current climate, land cover, long-term and recent climate change. Bird PE is concentrated in three main hotspots: the west coast, the southeast and south-central Canada east of the Rockies. High PE values tended to occur in regions with high temperatures and stability in temperature, both in the long (21,000 year) and short (35 year) time scales. PE patterns are driven more strongly by patterns of range size than phylogenetic distinctiveness, and are trending gradually upward, driven by increasingly frequent sightings of small-ranged species. These results indicate the importance of climate stability on multiple time scales in influencing endemism patterns and suggest a surprisingly minor influence of direct human land use. The increase in PE through time may reflect successful conservation efforts that have led to population recoveries of some small-ranged species.

Integrating spatial, phylogenetic, and threat assessment data from frogs and lizards to identify areas for conservation priorities in Peninsular Malaysia

Malaysia is recognized as a megadiverse country and biodiversity hotspot which necessitates sufficient levels of habitat protection and effective conservation management. However, conservation planning in Malaysia has hitherto relied largely on species distribution data without taking into account the rich evolutionary history of taxa. This represents the first study that integrates spatial and evolutionary approaches to identify important centers of diversity, endemism, and bioregionalization that can be earmarked for conservation priorities in Peninsular Malaysia. Using georeferenced species occurrences, comprehensive phylogenies, and threat assessments of frogs and lizards, we employed a spatial phylogenetics framework that incorporates various diversity metrics including weighted endemism, phylogenetic diversity, phylogenetic endemism, and evolutionary distinctiveness and global endangerment. Ten areas of high conservation value were identified via the intersection of these metrics—northern Perlis, Langkawi Geopark, southern Bintang range, Cameron Highlands, Fraser’s Hill, Benom-Krau complex, Selangor-Genting complex, Endau-Rompin National Park, Seribuat Archipelago (Tioman and Pemanggil Islands), and southern Johor. Of these, Cameron Highlands requires the highest conservation priority based on the high numbers of endangered and evolutionary distinct species coupled with severe environmental degradation and inadequately protected areas. Other areas, especially in the northwestern (states of Kedah and Penang) and northeastern regions (state of Kelantan) were not only identified as areas of high conservation value but also areas of biogeographic importance. Taken together, frogs and lizards demonstrate distinct east-west and north-south patterns of bioregionalization that are largely modulated by mountain ranges.