Photovoltaic Technology Research Articles

Recent research and developments of degradation assessment and its diagnosis methods for solar PV plant: a review

The world is moving forward to a transition in the form of increasing the contribution of renewable energy sources in the energy sector, and among these, solar photovoltaic-based power generation is catching pace. Several factors are responsible for the lowering of outputs due to different degradation causes such as hotspots, corrosion, humidity, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, temperature effects, dust, aging, weathering, yellowing, snail trails, discoloration, junction box failure, delamination, cracks, and faults from the solar photovoltaic (PV) plants. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the various form of degradation and their implications on solar PV power plant performance. The review has been carried out considering the different degradation causes and their identification methods in solar PV plant. Further, the analysis has been done on the basis of the earlier studies to understand the rates of degradation for various solar PV power plants in various climatic conditions. The PV technologies used in solar power plants are also responsible for the change in the performance of power plants over time; therefore, degradation based on different solar PV cell technologies is also analyzed. The visual inspection tools like thermal imaging with IR cameras help identify areas with abnormal heat patterns, indicating potential issues like cell or interconnect failures, loose electrical connections, or bypass diode malfunctions while EL cameras are used to identify low-level electrical excitation and defects such as cracks, hotspots, and cell-level degradation.

Sustainable coatings for green solar photovoltaic cells: performance and environmental impact of recyclable biomass digestate polymers

The underutilization of digestate-derived polymers presents a pressing environmental concern as these valuable materials, derived from anaerobic digestion processes, remain largely unused, contributing to pollution and environmental degradation when left unutilized. This study explores the recovery and utilization of biodegradable polymers from biomass anaerobic digestate to enhance the performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells while promoting environmental sustainability. The anaerobic digestion process generates organic residues rich in biodegradable materials, often considered waste. However, this research investigates the potential of repurposing these materials by recovering and transforming them into high-quality coatings or encapsulants for PV cells. The recovered biodegradable polymers not only improve the efficiency and lifespan of PV cells but also align with sustainability objectives by reducing the carbon footprint associated with PV cell production and mitigating environmental harm. The study involves a comprehensive experimental design, varying coating thickness, direct normal irradiance (DNI) (A), dry bulb temperature (DBT) (B), and relative humidity (C) levels to analyze how different types of recovered biodegradable polymers interact with diverse environmental conditions. Optimization showed that better result was achieved at A = 8 W/m2, B = 40 °C and C = 70% for both the coated material studied. Comparative study showed that for enhanced cell efficiency and cost effectiveness, EcoPolyBlend coated material is more suited however for improving durability and reducing environmental impact NanoBioCelluSynth coated material is preferable choice. Results show that these materials offer promising improvements in PV cell performance and significantly lower environmental impact, providing a sustainable solution for renewable energy production. This research contributes to advancing both the utilization of biomass waste and the development of eco-friendly PV cell technologies, with implications for a more sustainable and greener energy future. This study underscores the pivotal role of exploring anaerobic digestate-derived polymers in advancing the sustainability and performance of solar photovoltaic cells, addressing critical environmental and energy challenges of our time.Please confirm if the author names are presented accurately and in the correct sequence (given name, middle name/initial, family name). Author 7 Given name: [Ashok] Last name [Kumar Yadav]. Also, kindly confirm the details in the metadata are correct.correct

Combined multi-level context aggregation and attention mechanism method for photovoltaic panel extraction from high resolution remote sensing images

ABSTRACT In the context of global carbon emission reduction, solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is experiencing rapid development. Using high-resolution remote sensing images to accurately obtain PV information over a large region, including location and size, has the advantages of high statistical efficiency and timely data update for the PV energy management. Due to the intra-class diversity of PV panels and the intricate variability in their deployment environments, existing semantic segmentation methods often have problems such as under-segmentation and mis-segmentation. To alleviate these problems, this paper proposes an improved DeepLabv3+ semantic segmentation network to more accurately extract PV panels from high-resolution remote sensing images. With the aim of alleviating under-segmentation, a multi-level context aggregation module is developed. This module can enhance the model’s ability to learn the characteristics of PV panels and their surrounding environment by aggregating rich contextual information from multi-scale and semantic levels. To alleviate the problem of mis-segmentation, a hybrid attention module is introduced. This module sequentially and adaptively adjusts the weight distribution in both the channel and spatial dimensions, thus enabling the model to focus more on the feature information and spatial positions of PV objects. Experiments conducted on a self-constructed Beijing PV segmentation dataset show that the method in this paper has advantages of completeness and accuracy in extracting PV panels compared to the baseline model and current mainstream semantic segmentation network. In addition, the results of experiments on extracting PV panels in real region show that our model also has good stability and generalization capability.

Social, Environmental and Techno-Economic Impact of Rural Electrification Isolated with Photovoltaic Systems

Objective: To analyze the social, environmental, and techno-economic impact of rural electrification through the implementation of photovoltaic systems in isolated communities, in order to improve the quality of life of the inhabitants and promote sustainable development. Theoretical Framework: Successful cases of off-grid rural electrification with photovoltaic solar energy in Latin America for the economic and social development of isolated communities are reviewed. The drivers and limitations of this technology in Latin America, the cost of energy and the contribution to local development are analyzed to promote its adoption and sustainability. Method: A qualitative documentary method is used to study the social, environmental and techno-economic impact of rural electrification with photovoltaic systems in rural and marginal communities in Latin America, focusing on the case study of the community of Masa 2 in the Gulf of Guayaquil. Aspects such as the adoption of solar systems, implementation costs, benefits for the inhabitants and the need for a management plan to guarantee the sustainability of the systems are evaluated. Results and Discussion: The results of the study show that isolated electrification with photovoltaic systems in the case study has had a positive impact on the development of the quality of life of the inhabitants, allowing access to basic services such as electricity and telecommunications and providing the possibility of receiving virtual classes and entertainment, among other benefits. The need for policies that promote the adoption of photovoltaic technology is emphasized, as well as the importance of considering technical, economic and social aspects to ensure the successful implementation of rural electrification. Research Implications: The paper discusses the importance of implementing photovoltaic systems with management plans, in addition to the positive impact on the quality of life of the inhabitants, economic savings and access to basic services and improving educational opportunities. Originality/Value: The multidisciplinary approach in addressing the social, environmental and techno-economic impact of implementing photovoltaic systems in isolated communities. The study also analyzes the benefits of rural electrification in terms of local development, access to basic services and improvement of the quality of life of the villagers, highlighting the horizontal analysis of the state of losses or gains.

Unveiling the Shadows: Overcoming Bottlenecks in Scaling Organic Photovoltaic Technology from Laboratory to Industry

AbstractOrganic photovoltaic (OPV) technology has recently achieved remarkable progress in academia, attaining power conversion efficiencies exceeding 19%, a breakthrough previously unimaginable. Despite these advancements, the translation of high‐efficiency OPV cells into the commercialization of OPV modules has been limited, impeding the market penetration of OPV technology. Upon careful examination, various challenges emerge, including disparities between laboratory research and industrial production in device architecture, influenced by considerations of cost and manufacturability. Additionally, the incorporation of high‐efficiency materials requires careful consideration not only of the compatibility between the photoactive layer and interface layers or transparent electrodes but also of the associated synthetic complexity of chemical structures and cost implications. While these issues are crucial, they may not be widely discussed in current mainstream research. In this article, the purpose is to identify bottlenecks from a material techniques perspective, with the aim of promoting increased resources in the research of pertinent module technologies. This effort is intended to propel OPV technology toward greater success and bring it into closer alignment with the goals of commercialization.

The Green Breath for the Survival of Mankind in 21st Century using Sustainable Air Purifier

Air pollution, a concern both indoors and outdoors, necessitates effective solutions. While indoor air purifiers gain popularity, outdoor air quality remains crucial. Incorporating solar electricity into outdoor air purification systems offers a sustainable approach. These systems, powered by photovoltaic technology, filter contaminants from outdoor air, mitigating pollution and reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources. Solar-powered solutions not only enhance air quality but also combat climate change by curbing greenhouse gas emissions. HEPA filters in indoor appliances further improve air quality, especially beneficial for individuals with respiratory conditions like asthma

Four‐Terminal Perovskite–CdSeTe Tandem Solar Cells: From 25% toward 30% Power Conversion Efficiency and Beyond

Thin‐film tandem photovoltaic (PV) technology has emerged as a promising avenue to enhance power conversion efficiency beyond the radiative efficiency limit of single‐junction devices. Combining a tunable wide‐bandgap perovskite cell with a commercially established narrow‐bandgap cadmium selenium telluride (CdSeTe) cell in a comparatively easy‐to‐fabricate four‐terminal (4‐T) arrangement is a great step in that direction. Herein, the impact of the transparent back contact and the perovskite absorber bandgap on the performance of 4‐T perovskite–CdSeTe tandem solar cells is investigated. 4‐T perovskite–CdSeTe tandem device architecture with ≈25% efficiency is demonstrated and a feasible pathway is shown to improve the tandem efficiency to more than 30%. The results show that the integration of CdSeTe with perovskite in 4‐T tandem PV configurations represents a significant advancement toward achieving higher efficiency and low‐cost tandem PVs.

Greening airports: A methodological framework for site assessment and assessing solar PV potential

Due to energy intensiveness and carbon emissions, the aviation sector is under continuous environmental pressure. In this regard, airports have shown keen interest in solar photovoltaic (PV) technology to decarbonize their energy consumption. Implementing onsite solar projects in the airport is challenging due to various technical and safety aspects. Improper siting of solar PV arrays may adversely affect the safety of the passengers. This paper aims to develop a methodological framework for site assessment and potential estimation of PV projects in airport locations. The developed methodology is applied as a case study to seven Indian airports: Madurai, Goa, Raipur, Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Amritsar, and Dehradun. It was understood that the suitable area for solar PV projects on airport land depends on airspace restrictions, built area, and glare occurrence. On average, 30–40 % of the airport land is observed to be built area; hence, it is unavailable for land-based solar PV systems. Among the studied airports, the highest value of technical potential is observed for Raipur airport (21 MW). These conservative estimates provide baseline information for airport planning and development projects. This study is expected to be a reference material for energy specialists, airport stakeholders, and policymakers.

Public perceptions on net zero energy houses in Japan

AbstractFor Japan, which has not operated nearly all of its nuclear power plants since 2011 and is dependent on thermal power generation, the introduction of renewable energy into homes is extremely important for the future formation of a sustainable society. However, the introduction of net zero energy house (ZEH) in detached houses, which account for 55% of all dwellings in Japan, has not progressed. To promote the introduction of ZEH, this study clarified the awareness of owners of detached houses regarding ZEH. We analyzed factors that influence such perception of solar photovoltaics (PV) technology using a 1000-sample online survey questionnaire. The survey was conducted in late January 2020 and included questions examining the public perception of solar installation and factors that were found to be important in previous research. We found that Japanese respondents who live in detached houses generally lack an understanding of renewables and that the level of interest in installing solar PV for the ZEH is low. We also found that awareness of renewables, such as knowing new energy policy and searching information on solar PV, is the critical factor of installing renewables. At the same time, most socio-demographic and neighborhood variables seem not to influence installing solar PV or other technologies for ZEH. This research will contribute to the Japanese government’s goal of strengthening education on renewable energy to promote ZEH.

High‐performance Perovskite‐based Tandem Solar Cells: Recent Advancement, Challenges, and Steps Towards Industrialization

As a result of an ongoing global dedication, metal‐halide perovskite (PVSK) has proven to be a promising substitute among other developed materials for next‐generation photovoltaic cells due to significantly high efficiency, economical, environmentally friendly processing, and bandgap alterations. In just twelve years, PVSK‐based single cells achieved an efficiency of 26.1%, reaching single‐crystal silicon solar cells at 27.6% and silicon heterostructure solar cells at 26.8%. PVSK‐based tandem cells also achieved remarkable attention as a viable candidate for future‐generation photovoltaic technology. Presently, a considerable number of reports documented as evidence of the efforts to integrate the wide bandgap (WBG) PVSK either with itself (narrow bandgap perovskite (NBG‐PVSK) or other traditional (NBG) cells, including silicon (Si), copper‐indium‐gallium‐selenide (CIGS), organic solar cells (OSCs), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and dye‐sensitized. Thanks to the substantial growth made in the advances of PVSK‐based tandem cells both in the laboratories and commercialization sector. This review will systematically elucidate the emergence of PVSK‐based cells, their current status, and applications in tandem configurations. Furthermore, this survey will cover the analysis of different strategies and efforts to achieve cutting‐edge PV technology. Finally, the commercialization of different PVSK‐based tandem technologies and their prospects were analyzed.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Work Function Tuning of Carbon Electrode to Boost the Charge Extraction in Hole Transport Layer-Free Perovskite Solar Cells.

Perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a promising photovoltaic technology that achieves over 26% power conversion efficiency (PCE). However, the high materials costs, complicated fabrication process, as well as poor long-term stability, are stumbling blocks for the commercialization of the PSCs in normal structures. The hole transport layer (HTL)-free carbon-based PSCs (C-PSCs) are expected to overcome these challenges. However, C-PSCs have suffered from relatively low PCE due to severe energy loss at the perovskite/carbon interface. Herein, the study proposes to boost the hole extraction capability of carbon electrode by incorporating functional manganese (II III) oxide (Mn3O4). It is found that the work function (WF)of the carbon electrode can be finely tuned with different amounts of Mn3O4 addition, thus the interfacial charge transfer efficiency can be maximized. Besides, the mechanical properties of carbon electrode can also be strengthened. Finally, a PCE of 19.03% is achieved. Moreover, the device retains 90% of its initial PCE after 2000 h of storage. This study offers a feasible strategy for fabricating efficient paintable HTL-free C-PSCs.

Precursor-Engineered Volatile Inks Enable Reliable Blade-Coating of Cesium-Formamidinium Perovskites Toward Fully Printed Solar Modules.

Reliable fabrication of large-area perovskite films with antisolvent-free printing techniques requires high-volatility solvents, such as 2-methoxyethanol (2ME), to formulate precursor inks. However, the fabrication of high-quality cesium-formamidinium (Cs-FA) perovskites has been hampered using volatile solvents due to their poor coordination with the perovskite precursors. Here, this issue is resolved by re-formulating a 2ME-based Cs0.05FA0.95PbI3 ink using pre-synthesized single crystals as the precursor instead of the conventional mixture of raw powders. The key to obtaining high-quality Cs-FA films lies in the removal of colloidal particles from the ink and hence the suppression of colloid-induced heterogeneous nucleation, which kinetically facilitates the growth of as-formed crystals toward larger grains and improved film crystallinity. Employing the precursor-engineered volatile ink in the vacuum-free, fully printing processing of solar cells (with carbon electrode), a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 19.3%, a T80 (80% of initial PCE) of 1000h in ISOS-L-2I (85°C/1Sun) aging test and a substantially reduced bill of materials are obtained. The reliable coating methodology ultimately enables the fabrication of carbon-electrode mini solar modules with a stabilized PCE of 16.2% (average 15.6%) representing the record value among the fully printed counterparts and a key milestone toward meeting the objectives for a scalable photovoltaic technology.

Study on Fault Monitoring Technology of Photovoltaic Panel Based on Thermal Infrared and Optical Remote Sensing

Abstract. Rapid access to the operating status of Photovoltaic (PV) panels and troubleshooting can save management and maintenance costs for the development of PV power plants, which is important for PV power plant management and power generation capacity assurance. The use of remote sensing technology to identify the faults of photovoltaic panels has developed rapidly, however, current research usually relies only on a single optical data source to identify and count the area of PV panels in a PV electric field, although there are literature on PV panel fault detection, only the surface fault identification of PV panels is tested, while the internal faults (such as panel bad points or bad lines) cannot be identified because of the limitations of optical remote sensing. In this paper, a photovoltaic panel fault monitoring technology based on multi-source remote sensing is proposed. The optical and thermal infrared hybrid data combined with deep learning technology are used to achieve rapid and accurate fault identification and localization of PV panel arrays. It can not only automatically identify PV panels that are obscured by dust and foreign objects, but also locate PV panels that have bad dots or bad lines, which greatly improves the ability and effectiveness of remote sensing PV panel fault monitoring. The high-resolution unmanned air vehicle (UAV) optical image and thermal infrared image are applied in this experiment. The Mask RCNN algorithm is used to accurately locate and number the photovoltaic panel of the optical image. Then, the fault scene classification model is established for the multi-type fault characteristics of the optical image and thermal infrared image within the panel range, so as to identify five types of faults, such as dust cover, branch cover, bird droppings cover, internal bad points and bad lines of PV panel, which effectively solves the problem that the single optical remote sensing image cannot identify the internal component faults of the photovoltaic panel under normal conditions.

Stereoscopic Polymer Network for Developing Mechanically Robust Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells with an Efficiency Approaching 25.

Flexible perovskite solar cells (pero-SCs) have the potential to overturn the application scenario of silicon photovoltaic technology. However, their mechanical instability severely impedes their practical applicability, and the corresponding intrinsic degradation mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we systematically analyzed the degradation behavior of flexible pero-SCs under mechanical stress and observed that the structural failure firstly occurs in the polycrystal perovskite film, then extend to interfaces. To suppress the structural failure, we employed pentaerythritol triacrylate, a crosslinked molecule with three stereoscopic crosslink sites, to establish a three-dimensional polymer network in both the interface and bulk perovskite. This network reduced the Young's modulus of the perovskite and simultaneously enhanced the interfacial toughness. As a result, the formation of cracks and delamination, which occur under a high mechanical stress, was significantly suppressed in the flexible pero-SC, which consequently retained 92% of its initial power conversion efficiency (PCE) after 20000 bending cycles. Notably, the flexible device also showed a record PCE of 24.9% (certified 24.48%). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Photo-Stimulated Zn-based Batteries: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives.

Solar energy, as a renewable energy source, dominates the vast majority of human energy, which can be harvested and converted by photovoltaic solar cells. However, the intermittent availability of solar energy restricts the actual utilization circumstances of solar cells. Integrating photo-responsive electrodes into an energy storage device emerges as a dependable and executable strategy, fostering the creation of photo-stimulated batteries that seamlessly amalgamate the process of solar energy collection, conversion, and storage in one system. Endowed by virtues such as cost-effectiveness, facile manufacturing, safety, and environmental friendliness, photo-stimulated Zn-based batteries have attracted considerable attention. The progress report furnishes a brief overview, summarizing various photo-stimulated Zn-based batteries. Their configurations, operational principles, advancements, and the intricate engineering of photoelectrode designs are introduced, respectively. Through rigorous architectural design, photo-stimulated Zn-based batteries exhibit the ability to initiate charging by saving electricity usage, and in certain instances, even without the need for external electrical grids under illumination. Furthermore, the compensation of solar energy can be explored to improve the output electric energy. At last, opportunities and challenges toward photo-stimulated Zn-based batteries in the process of development are proposed and discussed in the hope of expanding their application scenarios and accelerating the commercialization progress.

Solar potential for social benefit: Maps to sustainably address energy poverty utilizing open spatial data in data poor settings

Access to affordable sustainable energy is a significant challenge for many lowincome countries experiencing energy poverty. The United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 aims to “ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.” Simultaneously, the European Union (EU) seeks to reduce emissions by 55 % by 2030. Decarbonization policies must be carefully considered to avoid adverse effects on vulnerable groups experiencing energy poverty. Solar technology offers a viable solution to decarbonize the building sector, reduce energy dependence on fossil fuels, and provide financial benefits to the public. Mapping solar potential is crucial to determine where investment in solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is most advantageous to the populations who stand to benefit the most. We combine a solar potential mapping approach incorporating socio-economic indicators indicative of energy poverty, using off-the-shelf Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools that are easily replicated across cities facing energy poverty. Utilizing lowest common denominator data and analysis approaches, we offer creative and innovative mapping solutions. The socio-economic factors help to contextualise the benefits of distributed PV systems and highlight the need for mapping solar potential, in combination with energy poverty indicators for sustainable planning and policymaking. Our results for a case study in the city of Plovdiv, Bulgaria, demonstrate high solar energy potential that could meet 29 % of the city's electricity needs, save citizens about M€ 43.84 annually, and pinpoint where to invest first for the highest gains. Finally, we offer suggestions on how to use these results to inform decarbonization policies to benefit low-income populations that are often missed in existing energy policies.

Techno-Economic and Environmental Analysis of the Integration of PV Systems into Hybrid Vessels

Solar energy is one type of clean energy resource, and currently the IMO, EU and UK are targeting net zero carbon emissions by 2050. This paper delves into the integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems into hybrid vessels in order to meet their strategies and targets. The technical challenges that come with designing such systems as well as their economic and environmental impacts are examined. By optimizing the usage of harnessed solar energy, we discover the operational strategy that provides maximal benefits through day-to-day savings as well as over the 25 year lifespan of solar panels. It demonstrates impressive economic viability, with cost savings of up to GBP 4.55 per day and a payoff period as short as 9 years. It also displays a modest emission reduction of up to 8.002 kg of CO2, which serves as proof for a pathway to greener practices in the maritime industry. This report highlights the operational flexibility that a hybrid vessel possesses once paired with a PV system through the ability to withstand regulatory and market changes. Also, when looking ahead, further adoption of PV technology creates opportunities for innovation in adopting renewable energy solutions in maritime transportation.

Energy yield database management system based on solar photovoltaic cell using internet of things technology

This study investigates the performance of solar cell electric power generation, focusing on data collected from Prince of Songkla University, Surat Thani Campus, analyzing the Mean Squared Error (MSE) for each phase consisting of Phase A: 0.00133, Phase B: 0.00137, and Phase C: 0.00216. Through linear regression analysis, we establish the correlation between current and electrical energy in each phase, facilitating the prediction of photovoltaic power generation system performance and timely maintenance alerts. This predictive analysis aids in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, preventing potential damages from short circuits, and ensuring system safety during installation. Our findings, which are accessible through a user-friendly dashboard interface, address a gap in previous studies by providing empirical data specifically from Prince of Songkla University, Surat Thani Campus, and by integrating IoT technology for real-time monitoring and analysis, underscoring the novelty of our approach.

Automated detection and tracking of photovoltaic modules from 3D remote sensing data

This study addresses the growing demand for increased performance and reliability of photovoltaic (PV) installations by developing innovative monitoring technologies. The strategy consists of flying an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with a dual camera (RGB and thermal) over the PV plant of interest, followed by the generation of photogrammetric 3D models derived from the overlapped aerial images. The resulting datasets involve orthoimages and point clouds by processing RGB and thermal imagery. The key contribution of this study is twofold: (1) the thermal image mapping on dense and high-resolution point clouds that represent the status and geometry of PV solar modules, and (2) the automatic identification of individual solar panels in 3D space and their thermal characterization along their oriented surface. Then, the vector layer of each PV panel is projected onto the 3D thermal point cloud to extract the thermal values associated with each panel. To evaluate the capability of the proposed method, it was replicated in different scenarios, considering rural and urban environments with different light conditions and PV structures. The results demonstrate the robustness of our method, which achieves a remarkably high detection rate, around 99.12% of true positives, and a low false positive rate, close to 0.88%. Consequently, this method means an advance over previous work by proposing a comprehensive and automated solution for individual and highly detailed monitoring of each solar panel from 3D remotely sensed data. This study opens up new frontier research related to real-time monitoring of photovoltaic modules, an inspection of solar photovoltaic cells, the simulation of solar resources and forecasting, the development of digital twins, solar radiation modelling, and analysis of modular floating solar farms under wave motion.

Research on the assessment of technical methods to suppress auger recombination

Human demand for fossil fuels has reached a very high level. However, fossil energy stocks are limited and, more importantly, their impact on the environment is increasing. The exploration of clean energy is particularly important. Among all the clean energy sources, solar energy is a very promising and important alternative to fossil fuels. And one of the primary reasons for the failure of solar photovoltaic cells to achieve rapid development is the generation of Auger composite. In order to provide support to solve this problem or facilitate the follow-up of researchers, this paper summarizes several effective methods such as Interfacial Engineering and Gradient Alloying to solve the Auger recombination problem in multi-exciton photovoltaic cells through reading and comparing a large number of relevant authoritative literature. The two methods mentioned above suppress Auger recombination by applying a new type of MXene (Nb2CTX-MXene) to the interface of SnO2 layers to pssivate the interfacial defects and promote charge transport and to generate InAs/CdSe core/shell QDs, overcoating InAs QDs with a lattice-matched CdSe shell. Comparing a large number of pieces of literature, it is found that the above two methods have guiding effects in improving the efficiency of photovoltaic cells.