Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation Research Articles

Recent Advances in Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation Based on Two‐Dimensional Materials

AbstractUtilizing solar energy for photocatalytic nitrogen fixation has been extensively regarded as a promising avenue towards renewable nitrogen energy production. 2D materials, renowned for their unique structures and properties, have sparked remarkable advancements in the realm of energy and environment sciences. In this review, we delve into the recent advancements pertaining to 2D materials for solar‐driven photocatalytic nitrogen fixation. This encompasses a diverse array of materials, including metal carbides/nitrides (MXenes), transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs or TMDCs), graphitized carbon nitride (g‐C3N4), metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and covalent triazine‐based frameworks (CTFs). We offer a fundamental understanding of the functionalities exhibited by various 2D materials in enhancing photocatalytic nitrogen fixation activity. The photocatalytic properties of these 2D materials are meticulously examined from multiple perspectives, including visible light absorption capabilities, charge transfer within the energy band, and reaction mechanisms. Finally, we present an in‐depth discussion on the existing challenges and prospects surrounding the application of 2D materials in photocatalytic nitrogen fixation.

Boosting photocatalytic nitrogen fixation performance by adjusting the intramolecular D-A structure and band gap of thiophene-based COFs

Herein, we successfully synthesized two photoactive donor–acceptor (D-A) covalent organic frameworks by incorporating electric-deficient triazine and electric-rich benzotrithiophene moieties into the framework. The introduction of sulfur atom and triazine unit significantly change the intrinsic band gap of JLNU-COFs, this leads to an expanded range of light absorption, encompassing wavelengths from ultraviolet to visible. The narrow band gap of JLNU-311 allows for efficient utilization of visible light while maintaining the thermodynamic activity required for nitrogen reduction within appropriate energy bands. JLNU-311 modified with strong electron absorbing groups has higher activity to NH3 production without co-catalyst or sacrificial agent, and yield can reach 325.6 µmol/g/h. Theoretical calculation further confirm that acceptor structure can effectively regulate the band gap width, promote the adsorption, dissociation and protonation of N2 molecules on JLNU-COFs, and thus reduce the energy barrier of photocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (PNRR). Therefore, this study provides an effective strategy for design of active nitrogen fixing photocatalysts.

Z-scheme InVO4/ZnFe2O4 heterojunction for efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

Given outstanding light absorption and utilization capabilities, narrow-bandgap semiconductors receive intensive interests in the photocatalysis field. However, the narrow bandgap is a double-edged sword, with the non-negligible charge carrier recombination and hinderance of redox reactions due to the limited redox capability. The construction of Z-scheme heterojunctions could address the aforementioned issues. In this work, we selected two band-matched narrow-bandgap semiconductor catalysts (InVO4 and ZnFe2O4) for the construction of a Z-scheme heterojunction. Compared with pure InVO4 and pure ZnFe2O4, the as-obtained InVO4/ZnFe2O4 Z-scheme heterojunction exhibited improved light harvesting capability and enhanced photogenerated electron-hole pair separation rate. The regulated energy band structure of as-formed InVO4/ZnFe2O4 Z-scheme heterojunction could accelerate the spatial separation of photogenerated electrons and holes, reduce the recombination probability, and provide sufficient electrons to participate in the nitrogen reduction, ultimately significantly promoting photocatalytic activity. Benefiting from above improvements, the NH3 yield of InVO4/ZnFe2O4 for photocatalytic nitrogen fixation was up to 453.37 μmol/gcat/h, which was about 17.7 times and 62.9 times higher than that of pure InVO4 and ZnFe2O4 samples, respectively. This study gives a promising guidance to the facile design and utilization of Z-scheme heterojunction composed of narrow-bandgap semiconductors.

Facile method for creating frustrated Lewis pairs in g-C3N4 to enhance photocatalytic nitrogen fixation performance

Facile method for creating frustrated Lewis pairs in g-C3N4 to enhance photocatalytic nitrogen fixation performance

Surface-controlled oxygen vacancy-rich Bi/BiVO4 Schottky junction for highly selective and active photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

The modulation of active site density and localized electron concentration represents a crucial step in enhancing nitrogen activation, thereby significantly augmenting the efficiency of photocatalytic nitrogen fixation. In this paper, Bi/BiVO4 Schottky junctions enriched with oxygen vacancies (Bi/Vo-BVO) were fabricated by in situ reduction. Compared to BiVO4, Bi/Vo-BVO composites exhibited 8.4-fold enhancement in ammonia synthesis yield, reaching a maximum rate of 167.74 μmol·g−1·h−1. In situ FTIR spectroscopy and isotopic labeling experiments definitively demonstrated that the nitrogen constituent of NH4+ is derived from N2. N2-TPD and DFT calculation collectively suggest that the surface of Bi/Vo-BVO, enriched with ligand-unsaturated V4+ species, furnishes a substantial array of chemisorption sites for N2 molecules, attributed to the abundance of oxygen vacancies. In situ XPS coupled with DFT corroborate that the photoexcited electrons within the BiVO4 valence band accumulate in the conduction band, thereby directly facilitating the activation of N2 adsorbed at the V4+ active sites; The built-in electric field established at the interface between Bi and BiVO4 substantially facilitates the enrichment of Bi-emitted thermal electrons within oxygen vacancies on BiVO4 surface. These electrons subsequently migrate towards and interact with the adsorbed N2 via the V4+ active sites. The synergistic photothermal electrons activation mechanism of N2 not only enhances the efficiency of light energy utilization but maximizes the catalytic efficacy of the photocatalyst through the full exploitation of its intrinsic catalytic potential.

Nanoarchitectonics of MIL-101(Fe)/g-C3N4 S-Scheme heterojunction for photocatalytic nitrogen fixation: Mechanisms and performance

Recently, there has been a growing interest in the fundamental understanding of the mechanism of how MIL-101(Fe)/g-C3N4 heterojunctions facilitate the occurrence of photocatalytic nitrogen fixation reactions, especially the electron transfer mechanism has attained increasing attention in photocatalysis. Herein, we implemented a "triple win scenario" strategy to fabricate the S-scheme MIL-101(Fe)/g-C3N4 heterojunction through a straightforward solvothermal process. The MC-6 heterojunction minimizes the recombination of photogenerated carriers, enhances light utilization efficiency, and activates the N≡N bond, thus boosting photocatalytic nitrogen fixation efficiency. The transition metal iron activates the N≡N bond, while S-scheme heterojunctions reduce the photogenerated carrier recombination. In addition, the decrease in band gap (Eg) leads to an increase in visible light utilization efficiency. ISIXPS proved the mechanism of interelectron transfer of MIL-101(Fe)/g-C3N4 heterojunction under illumination. Upon the creation of the heterojunction, electrons migrate from g-C3N4 to MIL-101(Fe), establishing an inherent electric field due to the disparate Fermi levels between the two materials. The electrons (e-) on the g-C3N4 CB with a more negative reduction potential and the holes (h+) on the MIL-101(Fe) VB are retained, which increased the redox capacity to a great extent required for the reduction of N2 to NH3. The ammonia production efficiency of MC-6 photocatalyst was 160 µmol gcat-1 h-1, representing an 8-fold and 2.8-fold improvement over pristine g-C3N4 (20 µmol gcat-1 h-1) and MIL-101(Fe) (57 µmol gcat-1 h-1), respectively.

Zn-based and Al-based MOF photocatalysts with abundant oxygen vacancies for fixing nitrogen effectively under mild conditions

Photocatalytic nitrogen fixation is an environmentally friendly process for turning atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia under mild conditions. In this study, MOF photocatalysts Zn-bpydc and Al-bpydc with good nitrogen fixation effect were prepared by a simple one-pot method. The rates of ammonia generation for Zn-bpydc and Al-bpydc at normal temperature and pressure were 796.1 µg g-1 h−1 and 684.0 µg g-1 h−1, respectively. The ESR test demonstrated that Zn-bpydc exhibits a higher concentration of oxygen vacancies than Al-bpydc, allowing it to chemically adsorb N2 and construct an effective electron transport pathway, hence enhancing the catalyst’s photocatalytic activity. This study provides a simple, efficient and economical MOF photocatalysts that can contribute to sustainable development.

Strategy of constructing D-A structure and accurate active sites over graphitic carbon nitride nanowires for high efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

Constructing photocatalysts for the stable and efficient production of NH3 is of excellent research significance and challenging. In this paper, the electron acceptor 5-amino-1,10-phenanthroline (AP) is introduced into the electron-donor graphitic carbon nitride (CN) framework by a simple heated copolymerization method to construct a donor–acceptor (D-A) structure. Subsequently, the phenanthroline unit is coordinated with transition metal Fe3+ ions to obtain the photocatalyst Fe(III)-0.5-AP-CN with better nitrogen fixation performance, and the average NH3 yield can reach 825.3 μmol g−1 h−1. Comprehensive experimental results and theoretical calculations show that the presence of the D-A structure can induce intramolecular charge transfer, effectively separating photogenerated electrons and holes. The Fe active sites can improve the chemisorption energy for N2, enhance the N-Fe bonding, and better activate the N2 molecule. Therefore, the synergistic effect between the construction of the D-A structure and the stably dispersed Fe active sites can enable CN to achieve high-performance N2 reduction to produce NH3.

A Review of Metal-Organic Frameworks Derived Hollow-Structured Photocatalysts: Synthesis and Applications.

Photocatalysis is a most important approach to addressing global energy shortages and environmental issues due to its environmentally friendly and sustainable properties. The key to realizing efficient photocatalysis relies on developing appropriate catalysts with high efficiency and chemical stability. Among various photocatalysts, Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-derived hollow-structured materials have drawn increased attention in photocatalysis based on advantages like more active sites, strong light absorption, efficient transfer of pho-induced charges, excellent stability, high electrical conductivity, and better biocompatibility. Specifically, MOFs-derived hollow-structured materials are widely utilized in photocatalytic CO2 reduction (CO2RR), hydrogen evolution (HER), nitrogen fixation (NRR), degradation, and other reactions. This review starts with the development story of MOFs, the commonly adopted synthesis strategies of MOFs-derived hollow materials, and the latest research progress in various photocatalytic applications are also introduced in detail. Ultimately, the challenges of MOFs-derived hollow-structured materials in practical photocatalytic applications are also prospected. This review holds great potential for developing more applicable and efficient MOFs-derived hollow-structured photocatalysts.

Solar-driven photocatalytic nitrogen fixation on transition metal-doped covalent organic frameworks: First-principles study

Designing highly efficient single-atom catalysts for converting nitrogen into ammonia under ambient temperature conditions holds significant importance. Current research predominantly focuses on electrocatalytic nitrogen fixation, but compared to that, photocatalytic nitrogen fixation requires only sunlight as an energy source, making it more environmentally friendly and cost-effective. Developing efficient nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) photocatalysts presents a promising yet highly challenging task. Two-dimensional (2D) covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have garnered interest because of their elevated surface area and regular pore structure. This study employs density functional theory calculations to investigate the potential of NRR photocatalysts using the 2D COF TMT-TFPT-COF (TT-COF) supported with 18 different transition metal atoms (TM = Rh, Nb, Os, Mo, Ru, Pt, Ni, Co, V, Cu, Fe, Re, W, Cr, Ta, Mn, Pd, Ti). Through a four-step selection process, the most promising photocatalyst is identified. The results indicate that a single Re atom loaded onto TT-COF (Re@TT-COF) displays the optimal nitrogen fixation performance, demonstrating excellent catalytic activity and selectivity with a limiting potential of only −0.30 V. Furthermore, its good light absorption efficiency, suitable band edge position, and significant photo-generated electron potential enable spontaneous nitrogen fixation. Our study provides useful guidance for the rational design of COF-based NRR photocatalysts with high activity, stability, and selectivity.

Nanoporous Heterojunction Photocatalysts with Engineered Interfacial Sites for Efficient Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation.

Photocatalytic N2 reduction reaction (PNRR) offers a promising strategy for sustainable production of ammonia (NH3). However, the reported photocatalysts suffer from low efficiency with great room to improve regarding the charge carrier utilization and active site engineering. Herein, a porous and chemically bonded heterojunction photocatalyst is developed for efficient PNRR to NH3 production via hybridization of two semiconducting metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), MIL-125-NH2 (MIL=Material Institute Lavoisier) and Co-HHTP (HHTP=2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxytripehenylene). Experimental and theoretical results demonstrate the formation of Ti-O-Co chemical bonds at the interface, which not only serve as atomic pathway for S-scheme charge transfer, but also provide electron-deficient Co centers for improving N2 chemisorption/activation capability and restricting competitive hydrogen evolution. Moreover, the nanoporous structure allows the transportation of reactants to the interfacial active sites at heterojunction, enabling the efficient utilization of charge carriers. Consequently, the rationally designed MOF-based heterojunction exhibits remarkable PNRR performance with an NH3 production rate of 2.1 mmol g-1 h-1, an apparent quantum yield (AQY) value of 16.2% at 365 nm and a solar-to-chemical conversion (SCC) efficiency of 0.28%, superior to most reported PNRR photocatalysts. Our work provides new insights into the design principles of high-performance photocatalysts.

Surface ion-exchange induced Bi-rich Bi12O17Cl2/BiOCOOH/Bi2MoO6 heterojunction with oxygen vacancies for enhanced photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

Photocatalytic nitrogen reduction presents a promising technology for environmentally friendly ammonia synthesis under mild conditions. However, the performance of photocatalysts is often hindered by high charge carrier recombination and insufficient adsorption and activation of nitrogen molecules. A novel Bi12O17Cl2/BiOCOOH/Bi2MoO6 heterojunction photocatalyst was successful synthesis through surface ion-exchange technique by potassium chloride. The introduction of Bi-rich Bi12O17Cl2 on BiOCOOH/Bi2MoO6 heterojunction not only improves electron transfer efficiency due to the dual type-II heterojunction effect but also facilitates on-site N2 adsorption and activation for solar ammonia production by promoting oxygen vacancies. The high photocatalytic nitrogen fixation activity of the Bi12O17Cl2/BiOCOOH/Bi2MoO6 was 107.78 μmol g−1 h−1 without any sacrificial agent. DFT calculations indicate that oxygen vacancies serve as the active site for adsorbed N2, the hydrogenation process preferentially forms on the distal N2 atom with a lower activation energy about 0.6 eV. Therefore, the combination of oxygen vacancies and band engineering accelerates the production of ammonia. This endeavor holds the potential to unleash the capabilities of engineering for Bi-rich heterojunctions materials with oxygen vacancies, thereby achieving high-efficiency solar-driven N2-to-NH3 conversion in aqueous environments.

Synergistic effects of CQDs and oxygen vacancies on CeO2 photocatalyst for efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

The combination of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) with oxygen vacancies (OVs) provides a promising approach to achieving efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation. It was by a hydrothermal method that CQDs-modified CeO2 composites (CQDs/CeO2) were synthesized. The synergistic effects of CQDs and OVs on CeO2 photocatalyst enhanced interfacial electron transfer capabilities, thus the photocatalytic nitrogen fixation was significantly enhanced. CQDs/CeO2 exhibited the most superior efficiency in photocatalytic nitrogen fixation, reaching 826 μmol·g−1·h−1, when the addition of CQDs was 200 µL. It was the introduction of CQDs that effectively regulated the concentration of OVs. OVs captured the electrons, thus promoting electron transfer. This enhancement not only improved the electron-hole separation efficiency in CQDs/CeO2 but also greatly promoted the adsorption and activation of N2 by OVs. This work offered a novel strategy for designing efficient photocatalysts for nitrogen fixation.

Polychloride and benzene ring synergistically boosting photocatalytic degradation and nitrogen fixation performances of carbon nitride

The limited active site exposure, insufficient light absorption and poor charge behavior of carbon nitride (CN) limit its application in environmental remediation and clean energy production. In this study, ultrathin porous CN with enhanced photocatalytic activity was constructed by doping 2,2′,5,5′-Tetrachlorobenzidine (TB) into CN framework. The synergistic effect of polychloride and benzene rings on CN leads to the significant enhancement of range/intensity of visible-light harvest and charge behavior, as well as specific surface area. The optimal sample achieves 100% tetracycline photodegradation efficiency with a rate constant approximately 9 times of pristine CN, and total organic carbon removal efficiency reaches 78.2%. Moreover, photocatalytic ammonia production rate is 7 times of pristine CN. Through active species trapping experiments, ESR, LC-MS, toxicity prediction and DFT calculations, the main active species, degradation pathway, intermediates toxicity and enhanced mechanism of photocatalytic activity are investigated. This work provides a reference for simultaneously regulating the morphology, light absorption and charge behavior of CN-based photocatalyst for addressing environmental and energy concerns.

(Invited) Plasmon-Driven Nitrogen Photofixation

Ammonia is one of the most important chemicals as well as an efficient energy carrier. The nitrogen element is indispensable for nearly all living species on the earth. However, dinitrogen molecules that are abundant in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by living species. They need to be converted into ammonia or nitrate for use. Such conversion is known as nitrogen fixation. Because natural nitrogen fixation is insufficient for sustaining all population on the earth, the industrial Haber-Bosch process has been developed for producing ammonia from dinitrogen and dihydrogen. The process consumes a large amount of energy and generates a large amount of carbon dioxide. Photocatalytic nitrogen fixation can operate under mild conditions and uses solar energy and water. It offers an intriguing alternative approach for the conversion of atmospheric dinitrogen into ammonia.Plasmonic metal nanocrystals can effectively absorb light and efficiently generate hot charge carriers. Compared to traditional interband excitation in semiconductors, plasmon excitation offers a new approach for generating hot charge carriers, which can thereafter be utilized for various physical and chemical processes. The use of plasmonic hot charge carriers for photocatalysis has become a hot research topic in the recent years. Plasmonic hot charge carriers can not only enhance the reaction yield and selectivity, but also introduce new reaction pathways. Moreover, the plasmon resonance wavelengths of various nanoparticles can be synthetically adjusted over a broad range that surpasses the solar spectrum.We have demonstrated the powerfulness of localized plasmon resonance on driving photocatalytic reduction of atmospheric nitrogen, where plasmonic hot electrons play an essential role. First, Au nanoparticles are anchored on ultrathin titania nanosheets with oxygen vacancies. The oxygen vacancies chemisorb and activate nitrogen molecules, which are subsequently reduced to ammonia by plasmonic hot electrons generated from the Au nanoparticles. Our synthesized all-inorganic hybrid structures mimic the function of biological nitrogenase enzymes, where the plasmonic Au nanoparticles play the role of the Fe proteins and the titania nanosheets play the role of the MoFe proteins. Second, we have extended the biomimetic idea into another popular semiconductor. A plasmonic hybrid catalyst is produced by uniformly embedding Au nanoparticles in the mesopores of nitrogen-deficient hollow carbon nitride spheres. The carbon nitride spheres possess abundant nitrogen vacancies, which serve as the sites for nitrogen chemisorption and activation, and capture photoexcited electrons stemmed from the carbon nitride spheres and the plasmon resonance of the embedded Au nanoparticles for the efficient reduction of the adsorbed nitrogen molecules to ammonia. Third, when metal-semiconductor hybrid nanostructures are designed as photocatalysts for nitrogen fixation, the introduction of a Schottky barrier at the junction is unavoidable. This Schottky barrier will undoubtedly lower the utilization efficiency of plasmonic charge carriers because only plasmonic hot charge carriers with sufficient energies and appropriate momenta can overcome the barrier and inject into the semiconductor. In addition, noble metals are well-known to be expensive. We have synthesized different metal oxide nanoparticles that are degenerately doped and thus exhibit strong plasmon resonance and demonstrated Schottky-barrier-free plasmonic photocatalysts for nitrogen fixation. The excitation of the plasmon resonance in these metal oxide nanoparticles can efficiently generate hot charge carriers. Because of the abundance of defects in these degenerately doped semiconductor nanoparticles, the photogenerated hot charge carriers can rapidly migrate to the defect sites and get trapped there. In this way, the lifetime of the plasmonic hot charge carriers is Moreover, these metal oxide nanoparticles possess active sites for adsorbing and activating dinitrogen molecules. Therefore, they function in a “one-stone-two-birds” manner. As a result, a record-high solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency has been achieved.

Synthesis and characterization of Ag/Cu dual-metal-functionalized porous Bi2WO6 microsphere with enhanced N2 photofixation

Semiconductor photocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (PNRR) stands as a promising clean technique for ammonia synthesis, yet it confronts numerous challenges. In this study, Ag nanoparticle-modified Cu-doped Bi2WO6 (ACB) porous composite materials with varying mass percentages were successfully synthesized using a solvothermal reduction approach. The incorporation of transition metal Cu effectively modulates the energy band position of Bi2WO6. Furthermore, the introduction of Ag nanoparticles significantly suppresses the recombination of photogenerated carriers. Without adding sacrificial agent, the photocatalytic nitrogen fixation yield of ACB reaches an impressive 184.93 μmol·g−1·h−1, which is 5.44 times higher than that of pristine Bi2WO6. A comprehensive analysis of the experimental results reveals that the combined effect of Cu doping and Ag nanoparticle loading endows ACB with an increased exposure of active sites, thereby significantly enhancing its photocatalytic nitrogen fixation performance. This research offers a promising approach for the design of metal nanoparticle-supported catalysts for PNRR, holding significant implications for the advancement of other material systems.

Plasmon-induced photocatalytic nitrogen fixation on medium-spin Au3Fe1/Mo single-atom alloy antenna reactor

Plasmon-induced photocatalytic nitrogen fixation on medium-spin Au3Fe1/Mo single-atom alloy antenna reactor

Heteropoly blue-modified ultrathin bismuth oxychloride nanosheets with oxygen vacancies for efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation in pure water

Photocatalytic nitrogen reduction is a promising green technology for ammonia synthesis under mild conditions. However, the poor charge transfer efficiency and weak N2 adsorption/activation capability severely hamper the ammonia production efficiency. In this work, heteropoly blue (r-PW12) nanoparticles are loaded on the surface of ultrathin bismuth oxychloride nanosheets with oxygen vacancies (BiOCl-OVs) by electrostatic self-assembly method, and a series of xr-PW12/BiOCl-OVs heterojunction composites have been prepared. Acting as a robust support, ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) structure of BiOCl-OVs inhibits the aggregation of r-PW12 nanoparticles, enhancing the interfacial contact between r-PW12 and BiOCl. More importantly, the existence of oxygen vacancies (OVs) provides abundant active sites for efficient N2 adsorption and activation. In combination of the enhanced light absorption and promoted photogenerated carriers separation of xr-PW12/BiOCl-OVs heterojunction, under simulated solar light, the optimal 7r-PW12/BiOCl-OVs exhibits an excellent photocatalytic N2 fixation rate of 33.53 µmol g-1h−1 in pure water, without the need of sacrificial agents and co-catalysts. The reaction dynamics is also monitored by in situ FT-IR spectroscopy, and an associative distal pathway is identified. Our study demonstrates that construction of heteropoly blues-based heterojunction is a promising strategy for developing high-performance N2 reduction photocatalysts. It is anticipated that combining of different defects with heteropoly blues of different structures might provide more possibilities for designing highly efficient photocatalysis systems.

Z-scheme metal organic framework/Ag@AgCl heterojunction photocatalysts with elevated photocatalytic N2 fixation activity

As one of the most consumed chemical reagents, ammonia (NH3) has a wide range of applications in many fields. The demand for ammonia may continue to increase with the advancement of technology and the acceleration of industrialization. The traditional high energy consumption and high pollution ammonia synthesis methods (Haber-Bosch) need to be optimized and improved to reduce environmental pollution and energy dependence. In this work, a series of Z-scheme NM/Ag@AgCl heterojunctions were prepared as catalysts for the research of photocatalytic nitrogen fixation. By in-situ photodeposition, Ag@AgCl was uniformly distributed on the NM surface, and the interfaces of different substances were tightly bonded. The SPR effect that generated by Ag nanoparticles significantly enhanced the light energy absorption performance of heterojunction materials. In the ESR spectra, the signal peak intensity of NM/Ag@AgCl was higher than that of NM under light condition. Constructing of heterojunction was beneficial to the formation of Ti3+. The strong built-in electric field among NM and AgCl promoted the generation of Z-scheme heterojunction. NM/Ag@AgCl had sufficient redox potential to overcome thermodynamic barriers and drive the catalytic reaction. Without adding any sacrificial reagent, the ammonia production of NM/Ag@AgCl-3 reached 76.7 µmol g−1 h−1 under full spectrum radiation. The rate of ammonia formation of NM/Ag@AgCl was almost seven times than that of NM. The synergistic effect between NM and Ag@AgCl optimized the photogenerated carrier separation path. This work provided a new vision for the practical application of efficient photocatalytic N2 reduction.

Reinforced BiOBr for visible-light-driven nitrogen fixation: A synergistic effect of cocatalyst and oxygen vacancies

Photocatalytic nitrogen fixation is a promising long-term strategy for NH3 synthesis, with the development of effective and durable photocatalysts being crucial for achieving high-efficiency N2 to NH3 conversion. In this study, we employed vacancy and interface engineering to create bismuth (Bi) nanoparticles on hierarchical oxygen-deficient BiOBr microspheres using a one-step solvothermal approach. These Bi-decorated BiOBr microspheres, featuring oxygen vacancies, achieved a high photocatalytic ammonia synthesis rate of 222.3 μmol·g−1·h−1 in pure water under visible light irradiation, which is 3.25 times higher than that of the original BiOBr. Atomic-scale images of the interface between the defective regions of BiOBr and the Bi cocatalyst and several other material characterizations confirmed that the enhanced photoreduction activity of Bi/BiOBr is due to the synergistic effects of the metal Bi and the oxygen vacancies. These results present a straightforward and practical method for designing efficient photocatalysts for nitrogen fixation.