Phonological System Research Articles

Loss of unreleased final stops among Mandarin-Min bilinguals: Structural convergence of languages in contact

The two languages of a bilingual speaker are interconnected and mutually influence linguistic forms and structures. This study presents a case in which two languages in contact exhibit phonotactic asymmetries but converge on abstract phonological units by bilingual speakers. The specific case examined here concerns the change-in-progress of unreleased final stops among young Mandarin-Min bilingual speakers in Taiwan. Phonotactically, obstruent finals are illegal in Taiwan Mandarin, whereas Taiwanese Southern Min (TSM), a local substratum language, allows obligatorily unreleased final stops. In the discrimination of stimuli modeled after TSM, bilingual listeners were consistently outperformed by Korean listeners, a non-native reference group without restrictions against obstruent finals. A follow-up production study revealed that final stops produced by the bilingual speakers were prone to deletion accompanied by vowel lengthening, similar to a long vowel in an open syllable, as well as frequent substitution. Furthermore, strong correlations were found between bilingual speakers’ perception and production accuracy, indicating a bidirectional co-evolution between perception and production during language development. Taken together, the results suggest that a loss of unreleased final stops is underway in TSM through the structural convergence of two interacting phonological systems within bilingual individuals.

The Influence of Shandong dialect on English learning

Phonologythe material shell of languagehas its own peculiarities because language structures and realizations vary. Behaviorist phonological theory implies that prior phonological patterns interfere with second-language communication. Learners inadvertently transfer their native language pronunciation to foreign language acquisition. The transfer is a psychological phrase that used to refer primarily to the influence of former learning on subsequent learning but now refers to the influence of one type of learning on another. Positive and negative transfers exist. English is Indo-European, while Chinese is Sino-Tibetan. distinct language families mean distinct phonological intonation systems and pronunciation patterns, therefore negative transfer of phonological learning is inevitable. Chinese students learn various dialects, each with its own system, and these dialects deeply affect English phonological intonation learning. This paper examines the transfer effect of the Shandong dialect on English phonology and the negative transfer of dialects to English intonation learning. The phonological system differs in terms of consonant parts and pronunciation methods, and the intonation system differs in tone, intonation, stress, and rhythm.

I remembered the chorm! Word learning abilities of children with and without phonological impairment.

Children with phonological impairment present with pattern-based errors in their speech production. While some children have difficulties with speech perception and/or the establishment of robust underlying phonological representations, the nature of phonological impairment in children is still not well understood. Given that phonological and lexical development are closely linked, one way to better understand the nature of the problem in phonological impairment is to examine word learning abilities in children. To examine word learning and its relationship with speech perception, speech production and vocabulary knowledge in children aged 4-5 years. There were two variables of interest: speech production abilities ranging from phonological impairment to typical speech; and vocabulary abilities ranging from typical to above average ('lexically precocious'). Participants were 49 Australian-English-speaking children aged 48-69 months. Children were each taught four novel non-words (out of a selection of eight) through stories, and word learning was assessed at 1 week post-initial exposure. Word learning was assessed using two measures: confrontation naming and story retell naming. Data were analysed by group using independent-samples t-tests and Mann-Whitney U-tests, and continuously using multiple linear regression. There was no significant difference in word learning ability of children with and without phonological impairment, but regardless of speech group, children with above average vocabulary had significantly better word learning abilities than children with average vocabulary. In multiple linear regression, vocabulary was the only significant predictor of variance in word learning ability. Children with phonological impairment can be lexically precocious and learn new words like their peers without phonological impairment. Contrary to expectations, vocabulary knowledge rather than expressive phonological ability explained variance in measures of word learning. These findings question an assumption that children with phonological impairment have underspecified phonological representations. They also highlight the heterogeneity among children with phonological impairment and the need to better understand the nature of their difficulty learning the phonological system of the ambient language. What is already known on the subject There is limited research examining the word learning abilities of children with phonological impairment. Most previous research focuses on word properties such as phonotactic probability and neighbourhood density. Within the existing literature there are different reports and conclusions regarding the word learning abilities of children with phonological impairment and whether their word learning differs from that of children with typically developing speech. What this study adds to existing knowledge This study found that vocabulary was the strongest predictor of word learning across children with and without phonological impairment. There was no significant difference in word learning ability between children with and without phonological impairment. However, children with lexically precocious vocabulary abilities were significantly better at word learning than children with average vocabulary abilities. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Findings from this study support the importance of assessing and considering measures of word learning-including vocabulary-when working with children with phonological impairment. This study indicates that it is possible to use stories coupled with measures of confrontation naming and story retell to gain deeper insight into children's word learning abilities.

Teaching and assessing literacy using a balanced approach: Effects of can-do self-assessment on early EFL learners

Teaching and assessing literacy using a balanced approach: Effects of can-do self-assessment on early EFL learners Following the January and July 2023 issues, Emiko Izumi from the School of Education & Graduate School of Education at Kwansei Gakuin University discusses the content and results of her collaborative research on the teaching and assessment of reading and writing for early English as foreign language (EFL) learners in Japan. Reading and writing lessons should be conducted in small, incremental steps. Especially for Japanese learners of English, it is very difficult to learn the alphabet (upper- and lower-case letters) and to connect letters and sounds. The English language has a different phonological system and graphemes from Japanese, so it is important for learners to recognise phonemes and develop phonological awareness. With this being said, we recommend a balanced approach that introduces bottom-up strategies, such as phonics instruction that teaches the rules for linking sounds and letters, and a top-down approach, such as understanding content from songs, stories, and picture books with a focus on meaning.

Separated and reunified: An apparent time investigation of the voice quality differences between Hong Kong Cantonese and Guangzhou Cantonese.

Hong Kong Cantonese (HKC) and Guangzhou Cantonese (GZC) are two major accents of Cantonese spoken in two geographically non-contiguous cities in Southern China. Previous studies were unable to identify the phonetic features that discern the two accents since they share the same phonological system. This study attempted to solve the puzzle by investigating the voice quality differences between the two accents through acoustic analysis on the speech output of 191 talkers in three age groups ranging from 18 to 65 years old. Among the various spectral and noise measurements of voice quality, we found that Cepstral Peak Prominence (CPP) was the best acoustic measure to discern the two accents. Based on the CPP measure, GZC had overall increased noise than HKC. Covariation of voice quality and tones was studied. The greatest CPP differences between the two accents were found in the two extreme tones: the high-level and the extra-low-level tones. Furthermore, creaky voice was found mainly tied to the extra-low-level tone in both accents. However, HKC exhibited higher frequency of creaky voice than GZC. The creaky voice in GZC was characterized by increased noise and increased tension, compared to those of HKC. Finally, age was found to be a mediating factor in the voice quality of the two accents. Adopting the Apparent Time Framework, voice quality in the two cities has undergone changes over time. The voice quality of the young generations of the two accents have become merged among the three low tones. Furthermore, the prevalence of creaky voice was increasing across age groups in both accents, and it increased at a faster rate in HKC than GZC.

PHONOTACTIC AND PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM IN KEMPO AND S>H KOLANG SUBDIALECTS

This study explores the phonological system in the Kempo subdialect (MSdK) and S>H Kolang subdialect (MSdS>H) in West Manggarai Regency. The study was conducted at nine survey sites by interviewing 200 vocabularies compiled by Swadesh. I analyzed the data by comparing the phonological systems between the two subdialects and formulating the possibilities of their occurrence in the word. The results show that the two subdialects have slightly different phonological systems. They have a different inventory of vowel phonemes: 15 consonant sounds in MSdK and 17 consonant sounds in MSdS>H. This study also found three non-pulmonic consonant phonemes in the two subdialects: bilabial /ɓ/, Alveolar /ɗ/, and Velar /ɠ/. In the case of the two subdialects, the non-pulmonic consonant phonemes have unique characteristics: (1) appearing in the initial and middle positions of words, making it impossible for three pulmonic consonants (i.e., consonants /b/, /d/, and /g /) to appear in the initial position. The existence of the three consonant phonemes only appears when at the beginning of the word, it is preceded by another consonant forming a cluster and located on the first syllable (i.e., /mb/, /nd/, and /ŋg/). The two subdialects also have a relatively similar inventory of vocal phonemes: 6 vowel phonemes. Diphthongs are almost identical between the two subdialects, 7 diphthongs which only appear in mono-syllable words and are located at the end of words. In contrast, two additional diphthongs in MSdS>H appear in two-syllable words and the middle position of the word.

Scale in Language.

A central concern of the cognitive science of language since its origins has been the concept of the linguistic system. Recent approaches to the system concept in language point to the exceedingly complex relations that hold between many kinds of interdependent systems, but it can be difficult to know how to proceed when "everything is connected." This paper offers a framework for tackling that challenge by identifying *scale* as a conceptual mooring for the interdisciplinary study of language systems. The paper begins by defining the scale concept-simply, the possibility for a measure to be larger or smaller in different instances of a system, such as a phonemic inventory, a word's frequency value in a corpus, or a speaker population. We review sites of scale difference in and across linguistic subsystems, drawing on findings from linguistic typology, grammatical description, morphosyntactic theory, psycholinguistics, computational corpus work, and social network demography. We consider possible explanations for scaling differences and constraints in language. We then turn to the question of *dependencies between* sites of scale difference in language, reviewing four sample domains of scale dependency: in phonological systems, across levels of grammatical structure (Menzerath's Law), in corpora (Zipf's Law and related issues), and in speaker population size. Finally, we consider the implications of the review, including the utility of a scale framework for generating new questions and inspiring methodological innovations and interdisciplinary collaborations in cognitive-scientific research on language.

The Key English Pronunciation Difficulties for Egyptian EFL Learners

Despite all the attempts by ESL and EFL learners to attain (near-)native proficiency, many phonological, lexical and spelling mistakes still occur in any L2 learning environment (Huwari 2019, 31). This paper aims to investigate the key English pronunciation difficulties, both segmental (on the level of speech sounds) and suprasegmental (rhythm, stress, and juncture), of Egyptian learners of English, in a corpus of audio and/or video recordings of English conversation and presentation skills classes by Egyptian university students who are also native speakers of Egyptian Colloquial Arabic (ECA). The project involves both contrastive analysis (of the phonological systems of English, Egyptian Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic) as well as error analysis. While the significance of contrastive analysis lies in helping EFL teachers predict the problematic aspects (Al-Saqqaf and Vaddapalli 2012, 56), error analysis would provide them with the actual problems encountered by the learners and the extent of their seriousness.

Individual profiles amidst a multiethnolect: Acoustic hetereogeneity in London English

Multicultural London English (MLE; Kerswill and Torgersen 2008; Cheshire et al., 2011) arose in working class areas of London around 30 years ago through intensive, multiethnic social contact (Kerswill and Torgersen, 2021). The variety’s highly systematic phonological system has been seen as displacing traditional London vernacular varieties including Cockney, which have moved further East (Fox, 2015). MLE and Standard Southern British English are two strands among many, interwoven with features of the earlier London vernacular and features of non-MLE varieties (Sharma and Sankaran, 2011). Using preliminary data from a new project, Generations of London English, we present an acoustic analysis that shows both the stability and emerging maturity of MLE as well as strands of continuity from the past. The GOAT vowel shows a diverse range of variants indexing social class, ethnicity, age, and gender. By contrast, all Londoners participate in GOOSE-fronting, which is thus primarily an index of age, and women lead FOOT-fronting, a city-wide change showing less ethnic and social class sensitivity. A generalized use of labels such as MLE risks mischaracterizing the sociophonetic reality. We argue for analysis of individual phonetic profiles as unique intersections of historically layered features, diffusing differently through a heterogeneous population.

Prominence and focus: The tension between acoustic cues and phonological structure

Across many languages, prosodic prominence signals focus. For example, “Does SHE like it?” has different implications to “Does she LIKE it?” (capitals indicate prominence), as the prominence marks focus and therefore a different implied contrast (with she versus like). In prosody research, there has always been a tension in the extent to which prominence is marked directly by psychoacoustic cues (higher pitch, loudness, length, etc.), which may be universal across languages, versus prominence being part of phonological structure, and therefore language-specific (e.g., Ladd, 2008). I review my research on the production and perception of focus in the understudied Polynesian languages Samoan and te reo Māori (Calhoun, 2015, 2016; Calhoun et al., 2021, 2023, in press), as well as other diverse languages (e.g. see Kügler & Calhoun, 2020). This research shows very clearly that cues to prominence vary substantially across languages and must be related to the phonological system of a given language. Nonetheless, questions about whether psychoacoustic cues directly signal focus, or its pragmatic sister, (paralinguistic) emphasis, alongside or within phonological structure, remain unresolved (e.g., Ladd and Arvaniti, 2023). I consider recent research offering new approaches to resolving this tension in relation to results from understudied languages.

Perbandingan Fonologi Pada Bahasa Indonesia Dan Bahasa Jepang

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound system of language and examines the rules that regulate the use of language sounds based on their characteristics, such as articulation, frequency, duration, and intensity. This research discusses "Phonological Differences in Indonesian and Japanese." The aim of this research is to obtain data and information about the differences in phonology between Indonesian and Japanese. The research method used is a literature study by collecting scientific articles and journals from various relevant sources as material for comparative analysis between the phonological systems of Indonesian and Japanese. The findings of this research indicate that there are significant differences between the phonologies of Indonesian and Japanese. The implication of this research is that it is important to understand the differences in Indonesian and Japanese phonology, which can provide benefits in teaching and learning both languages in the future.

Clusters and series consonants of the Kaur language (phonological analysis)

The phonotactic system is one of the interesting phonological systems to explain because it is the system that regulates the existence, abilities, and inability of phoneme combinations of a language. To that end, this article describes the Kaur language phonotactic system which includes (1) the cluster phonotactic system and (2) the consonant series phonotactic system. The data in this study were sourced from six key informants who were domiciled in Kaur Regency (Bengkulu Province) with the criteria of being between 50-65 years old, native Kaur tribe, never left their native area, mastered Kaur language and culture well, and communicative. Data was collected through interviews and recording devices. Data were analyzed to determine the cluster and consonant series with the help of a speech analyzer. The results showed that in Kaur language (KL) there are 14 clusters (/pl/, /bl/, /gl/, /mp/, /mb/, /nt/, /nd/, /st/, /ɲc/, /ɲɟ/, /ɲcl/, /ŋk/, /ŋg/, /ŋgl/) and 21 series: /mp, mb, nt, nd, ns, ɲc, ɲɟ, ŋk, ŋg, ŋs, ʕb, ʕt, ʕd, ʕc, ʕk, ʕs, sk, st, ʔm, ʔ-ʕ, ʔ-mp/. In KL there is a unique consonant vowel sequence (homorgan consonant series). There are three rules if-then to explain the cluster of KL and five rules if-then to explain the series of KL consonants. KL has a unique phonotactic system so that this study contributes to the development of KL.

Iconicity in the emergence of a phonological system?

AbstractIconicity has been described as an impetus for creating sign forms in emerging sign languages and forming signs in established sign languages. Iconic signs are defined as spontaneous or stable signs that directly reflect the representation of their referent. In established sign languages, iconic signs have phonological features. Regarding the link between the motivation for iconic signs and phonological features, we aim to investigate how iconicity might influence the emergence of a phonological system along with the evolution of a new sign language by observing how the rise of a phonological system might be revealed by the evolution of emerging iconic gestures and signs in a new sign language. For this purpose, we inventoried and coded the iconicity nature and phonological structure of 200 signed lexical items collected in two moments of Sao Tome and Principe Sign Language (LGSTP) emergence: at T1 (after 2 years since the deaf habitants initiated their social meetings) and T2 (8 years subsequent to T1 data collection). In the 8 years of LGSTP’s emergence, we found a dominance of iconic signs in tandem with changes in the signs’ internal structure. The handshape is revealed to be the phonological parameter with the greatest development, presenting itself as more complex. The LGSTP lexicon reveals that iconicity seems to prompt the emergence of sign forms. However, iconic strategies remain stable across the evolution of the emergent signs and are independent of the internal structure change of the sign.

Atrició fonològica i desestabilització de l’estàndard en la televisió valenciana


 
 
 In the context of the Valencian linguistic conflict, the native language undergoes a progressive reduction of the phonological repertoire that tends to eliminate any phoneme that does not exist in the dominant language. This ongoing process exceeds the traits and territory of the well-known apitxat. This adaptation of the phonological system to that of Spanish is accompanied by lexical impoverishment, semantic and grammatical calque of the dominant language. In such a situation, mass media can be a tool not only to increase language use, but also for standardization, that is, the transmission of a normative and genuine model of language. In this contribution, we analyse a corpus of news from the Valencian public television À Punt, in a period of great prominence of the COVID-19 pandemic, to find out what impact the attrition of phonemes has on the speech of professional broadcasters. From a sociophonic point of view, we focus on the pronunciation diverging from the normative Valencian, especially when caused by the approach to Spanish, in order to determine the model of language that this broadcaster transmits to the Valencian society.
 
 

DYNAMIC ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF PAKISTANI ENGLISH: A DESCRIPTION OF FORMANT VARIATIONS OF F1 & F2 PRODUCED BY PAKISTANI SPEAKERS

The current study explores the variations of formant frequency of English vowels produced by eighty students of BS English and English language at NUML and International Islamic University Islamabad. The research defines the acoustic monophthongal variations under the influence of gender and four standard regional varieties of Pakistan and presents a macro-level description of Monophthongs of Pakistani English. The respondents belong to Balochi, Pushto, Punjabi, and Sindhi languages. This study explores monophthongal formant variations among these speakers through the lenses of the ‘Formant Frequency Model’ (Lindblom, 1979). For this purpose, the poem entitled, “The North Wind and the Sun” has been used to collect the required data. The formant values have been extracted from PRAAT, a software presented by (Boersma & Weenink, 2019). The manually extracted data from PRAAT were analyzed via statistical tools of SPSS and ANOVA. The findings of this research disclose that monophthongal formant variations are related to the unclear realization of sounds like /ə / and /ʌ/, paucity in realizing the vowel pairs of English, identical articulation of /ɒ/ and /ͻ:/ among the groups. The findings of the research would contribute to the phonological system of Pakistani English, which is an Asian- variety of the Outer-Circle. The findings would assist English language teachers to teach pronunciation of English with an acoustic-phonetic perspective. Keywords: PakE, Acoustic & Statistical Analysis, Formant Frequencies, Monophthongs

DYNAMIC ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF PAKISTANI ENGLISH: A DESCRIPTION OF FORMANT VARIATIONS OF F1 & F2 PRODUCED BY PAKISTANI SPEAKERS

The current study explores the variations of formant frequency of English vowels produced by eighty students of BS English and English language at NUML and International Islamic University Islamabad. The research defines the acoustic monophthongal variations under the influence of gender and four standard regional varieties of Pakistan and presents a macro-level description of Monophthongs of Pakistani English. The respondents belong to Balochi, Pushto, Punjabi, and Sindhi languages. This study explores monophthongal formant variations among these speakers through the lenses of the ‘Formant Frequency Model’ (Lindblom, 1979). For this purpose, the poem entitled, “The North Wind and the Sun” has been used to collect the required data. The formant values have been extracted from PRAAT, a software presented by (Boersma & Weenink, 2019). The manually extracted data from PRAAT were analyzed via statistical tools of SPSS and ANOVA. The findings of this research disclose that monophthongal formant variations are related to the unclear realization of sounds like /ə / and /ʌ/, paucity in realizing the vowel pairs of English, identical articulation of /ɒ/ and /ͻ:/ among the groups. The findings of the research would contribute to the phonological system of Pakistani English, which is an Asian- variety of the Outer-Circle. The findings would assist English language teachers to teach pronunciation of English with an acoustic-phonetic perspective. Keywords: PakE, Acoustic & Statistical Analysis, Formant Frequencies, Monophthongs

SYLLABIC PATTERNS IN THE LIGHT OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF ENGLISH AND AZERBAIJANI LANGUAGES)

The attempt to describe phonemes and phoneme systems is one of the main features of modern linguistics. The study of the combinatorics of phonemes is very actual in phonology, because the description and comparison of the results of languages that are not only related but also differ significantly according to their typological characteristics, is one of the main issues that syntagmatic phonology is facing today. Phonemes in each language combine in syntagmatic relationships according to intra-linguistic laws and form the basis of its phonological system. By studying the sequence of phonemes in the act of speaking, it is possible to determine certain regularities that constitute the essence of combinatorics of segment units. This study is dedicated to revealing the main syllable patterns in the English and Azerbaijani languages and determining the principles of syllable formation in speech. The paper states that syllabic patterns are universal and common to all languages. It is also noted that the syllable is one of the most mysterious and complex phenomena in the sound system of the language. As a result of the statistical analysis, general and specific syllable models were found in the compared languages. Besides, with the help of statistical analysis, quantitative indicators reflecting the frequency of development of syllabic models in the compared languages were obtained.

The role of the input frequency in L1 Spanish phonological acquisition. A corpus-based study

This study presents the phonological system exhibited by children (n=59) aged 3;0 to 6;0 and focuses on the role of input frequency. Using a spontaneous child speech corpus of Spanish (CHIEDE) as a data source, as well as computational processing techniques -including an automatic phonological transcriber-, data relating to the phonological level was retrieved. This resulted in a phonological inventory of Spanish-speaking children, ordered by frequency of use, which may serve as a model for research on typical and atypical child language development. Additionally, a study was carried out on the stability of the participants’ phonological systems by calculating the variability that the different age groups displayed, and outcomes were compared with other similar corpora. Results obtained from the comparison of the phonological inventory of children and adults show that there is a relationship between frequency of use in adult speech and the order of acquisition of phonemes.

Infant-directed speech does not always involve exaggerated vowel distinctions: Evidence from Danish.

This study compared the acoustic properties of 26 (100% female, 100% monolingual) Danish caregivers' spontaneous speech addressed to their 11- to 24-month-old infants (infant-directed speech, IDS) and an adult experimenter (adult-directed speech, ADS). The data were collected between 2016 and 2018 in Aarhus, Denmark. Prosodic properties of Danish IDS conformed to cross-linguistic patterns, with a higher pitch, greater pitch variability, and slower articulation rate than ADS. However, an acoustic analysis of vocalic properties revealed that Danish IDS had a reduced or similar vowel space, higher within-vowel variability, raised formants, and lower degree of vowel discriminability compared to ADS. None of the measures, except articulation rate, showed age-related differences. These results push for future research to conduct theory-driven comparisons across languages with distinct phonological systems.

Guttural fricatives and initial *w- in common Mǐn

ABSTRACT: In his earlier Proto-Mǐn reconstructed phonological system the late Professor Jerry Norman posited three guttural fricative initials, i.e., *x-,*h-, and *-h-. In early unpublished manuscripts dealing with this system, *x- was classed as velar, while *h- and *-h- were described as laryngeals. Initial *x- was characterized as voiceless and *h- and *-h- as voiced. In Norman (1974), however, *h- was transcribed as phonetic [ɣ], a voiced velar (rather than laryngeal) fricative, while *-h- was interpreted as [ɦ], a voiced laryngeal. In his much more recent Common Mǐn system, as represented in certain of his final dialectological publications and posthumous papers, Norman posited one voiceless velar fricative, *x-, and two laryngeals, *h-, and *ɦ-, the former voiceless and the latter voiced. Additionally, he reconstructed a rounded semivowel, Common Mǐn *w-, which had not been explicitly mentioned in his published presentations of Proto-Mǐn but was posited without comment in manuscript materials in a single word, i.e., huáng 黃 "yellow". In the Common Mǐn system, on the other hand, this *w- plays a more prominent role and is also associated with the guttural fricatives in certain ways. The purpose of the present paper is to exemplify and compare Norman's new Common Mǐn *x-, *h-, *ɦ-, and *w-. 摘要: 上個世紀七八十年代之間，羅杰瑞先生構擬了眾所週知的"原始閩音" 系統。此系統含有三個口腔後的擦音聲母，即是*x-、*h-、*-h-。*x- 是清舌根音，而 *h- 與 *-h- 是濁喉音。在其 1974 年的一篇文章中， *h- 則轉寫為[ɣ]，濁舌根擦音，*-h- 為濁喉擦音 [ɦ]。到了九十年代晚 年，羅先生又進一步重建了一種新的閩音系統，稱之為"共同閩音"。 從那時起，共同閩音在羅先生的著作裡完全取代了之前的原始閩音。 共同閩音系統含有一個清舌根擦音*x-，以及兩個濁喉擦音：*h- 與 *ɦ-。 不過，除此之外還有一個半元音*w-，與*x-、*h-、*ɦ- 三個口腔後擦 音有非常密切的關係。這四個聲母之間的互相作用和影響都相當複雜， 與原始閩音系統裡的口腔後聲母的對應模式迥異。本文的目的即是探 討這四個共同閩音的聲母及其互相之間的關係。