Russian Philosophy Research Articles

Russian philosophy of law and the historical tasks of Russia: to the publication of the monograph of corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Savenkov “Philosophy of law and the formation of the Russian state-civilization”

The article is devoted to the publication of a monograph by Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Institute of State and Law of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. N. Savenkov “Philosophy of Law and the formation of the Russian state-civilization”. In the Russian scientific literature, this is the first study where an attempt is made to show national legal consciousness (in the form of philosophy of law) and Russian statehood as a single inseparable synthesis, as an organic spiritual and practical integrity. The main feature of the book is the consideration of the Russian Philosophy of Law as a phenomenon of national legal consciousness, as the spiritual core of Russian statehood. The monograph shows a wide panorama of Russian and European history, the struggle and the interaction of ideas, values, concepts and schools. The article reveals the author’s approaches concerning the formation of the ideology of the modern Russian state based on the ideological heritage of the Russian Philosophy of Law.

Проблема бессознательного в европейском теизме и спиритуализме XIX в. и русская религиозная философия

European theism and spiritualism of the XIX century and Russian religious philosophy are examples of a non-psychoanalytic tradition of studying the unconscious, the study of which is of scientific interest. The issue of the influence of European philosophy on Russian philosophy has been considered in many aspects, but the influence on the doctrine of the unconscious has not been studied. The aim of this article is to study the influence of the views of European theists and spiritualists of the XIX century on the problem of the unconscious on Russian religious philosophy. The novelty lies in the fact that, firstly, an assessment is given of the nature of the influence of European theism and spiritualism of the XIX century on Russian religious philosophy on the issue of the unconscious; secondly, the difference in the interpretation of the unconscious in religious philosophy of the XIX – first half of the XX century and psychoanalytic philosophy is shown. It is shown that European theism and spiritualism of the XIX century had a significant influence on the interpretation of the unconscious in Russian religious philosophy, however, domestic thinkers also, when studying the unconscious, focused their attention on the moral and ethical aspect of personal existence and considered the unconscious in a broad historical and philosophical context. In addition, the fundamental elements in the interpretation of the unconscious in Russian religious philosophy and European theism and spiritualism are the psychological understanding of the unconscious and the personal nature of the interaction between man and God (in accordance with the views of theistic philosophy).

Россия как цивилизация в отечественной философской публицистике XIX – начала ХХ века

The article examines the spectrum of domestic philosophical journalism from the XIX ‒ early XX century, which placed particular emphasis on identifying the civilizational specificity of Russia. A significant initial contribution to this discourse was made by P.Ya. Chaadaev in his works “Philosophical Letters” and “Apology of a Madman”. A distinctive response to Chaadaev’s ideas can be found in the works of his contemporaries, including A.S. Pushkin, F.I. Tyutchev, and N.V. Gogol. Each of these authors proposed their own solution on the issue of Russia as a unique civilization. This topic is further developed by Russian philosophers of the second half of the XIX – early XX century – N.Y. Danilevsky, K.N. Leontiev, V.S. Solovyov and V.V. Rozanov, whose ideas became the subject of analysis in the presented article. The text provides a comparative analysis of domestic and foreign assessments of this historical period in the context of the geopolitical situation of that time. Particular attention is paid to the reconstruction of cultural-historical types in the works of Russian and European authors.

Онтологические аспекты философии А.А. Козлова

The article examines the ontological views of Alexei Alexandrovich Kozlov, a prominent representative of Russian idealist philosophy. It emphasizes that the Russian philosopher transforms Gottfried Leibniz’s monadology in the spirit of a unique doctrine he refers to as “panpsychism”. A.A. Kozlov rejects the radical boundary between mind and matter, asserting that matter is merely a lower level of spirit. Moreover, the philosopher highlights that it is impossible to conceive of actions without an actor and delineates a concept of multiple “substantial doers”. Regarding time, A.A. Kozlov introduces the notion of a “prospective series”, i.e., an order that we perceive precisely as development. The philosopher refers to this position as the concept of a timeless development. As for space, A.A. Kozlov believes that we see a symbol that real substances exist not in isolation, but interrelated, in a single connection. The author of the article concludes that the direction of “panpsychism”, with A.A. Kozlov as one of its brightest representatives, remains relevant. In a world where digital technologies are becoming significant, panpsychism can help in finding new ways for humans to interact with artificial intelligence.

‘Negativity without use’: death, desire and recognition in the work of G. Bataille and A. Kojève

ABSTRACT Georges Bataille was a regular attendee in Alexandre Kojève’s seminars on Hegel between 1933 and 1939. Bataille developed a lifelong friendship with the Russian philosopher, with whom he corresponded, and whose numerous unpublished drafts came to his possession after Kojève’s death. Initially, Bataille accepts the Kojèvian starting point of humanity and history, as desire and discourse, action and negativity, a vision which culminates in the apocalyptic end of history. However, progressively, Bataille comes to question the identification of negativity with human history or historical action. Bataille speaks of a ‘negativity without use’; an excess of negativity and death which does not disappear after history has ended. Grappling with Kojève’s suffocating vision of the end of history, Bataille emerges as a profound thinker who attempts to make sense of the post-historical and post-human horizon, and the return to animality, where there is neither desire, nor action and there is ‘nothing else to do’. In this eclipse of sense and historical action, the only endeavours available to humanity seem to be art, death, eroticism and play. Thus, for Bataille, the end of history is an exclusively human condition, in which humanity is brought resolutely to confront its own negative excess.

Феноменология сегодня: исторические проблемы и современные тенденции. Возвращаясь к дискуссии 1988 года (материалы «круглого стола»)

In April 2024, a round table titled “Phenomenology Today: Historical Problems and Contemporary Trends. Returning to the 1988 Discussion” was held, dedicated to discussing current problems in phenomenological research in the context of the historical development of phenomenology in the 21st century. The round table was organized by the journal “Voprosy Filosofii”, the Center for Phenomeno­logical Philosophy of the Faculty of Philosophy of RSUH, as well as participants in the Russian Science Foundation project “World, Language, Reality: European and Russian Philosophy in Conceptual and Terminological Dimensions”. Leading phenomenologists, historians of philosophy, and epistemologists participated in the round table. The focus was on the materials of the discussion “Phenomeno­logy and Its Role in Contemporary Philosophy” (Voprosy filosofii, 1988, No. 12). The following topics were discussed: How can the past 36 years in the global and domestic phenomenological movement be assessed? How has the subject configur­ation of phenomenology as a field of study changed? What are the directions of contemporary phenomenological discussions, the specifics of the phenomenolo­gical method and the limits of phenomenological description. Can it be said that the phenomenological method is applied today in the humanities and natural sci­ences, and if so, how effective is it? What is happening today in phenomenology, and what are the current discussions? Phenomenology and analytic philosophy: prospects and possibilities for comparison. The role of phenomenology in the for­mation of epistemological and ontological traditions in Russian philosophy. What has changed in this field over 36 years? The core of the discussions, sparked by the questions posed, became the problem of the relationship between historical reality and the language of philosophy, as well as the understanding of the value of phenomenological strategies in education and scientific activities

Философские идеи Н.Н. Страхова в контексте современных проблем исторической памяти

Historical memory is one of the key problems in contemporary philosophy of his­tory, political philosophy, and social philosophy. Philosophers and humanities scholars discuss its possible specific characteristics based on the contexts of their fields of knowledge, but the contentiousness of this phenomenon persists despite their intellectual efforts. To identify new contexts for interpreting historical me­mory and to reveal new perspectives for understanding its modes of existence in culture and society, the authors turn to the history of Russian philosophy, within which a unique attitude towards history as a fundamental basis of humani­tarian knowledge was formulated (unlike the Western tradition of the philosophy of science, where history is generally treated as a relativizing factor). The focus of the authors is on the intellectual legacy of the Russian philosopher Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov, whose concept of the philosophy of science and under­standing opens up new opportunities for interpreting “historical memory”. The authors immerse the problem of historical memory in the following contexts of Strakhov’s philosophy: 1) science as a cultural phenomenon, 2) ethnic psycho­logy, and 3) existential themes that reveal the specificity of communication among 19th-century Russian philosophers, their methods of preserving histo­rical memory, and transmitting its meanings to future generations. Special at­tention is given to two different interpretations of the concept of “experience” in N.N. Strakhov’s philosophy (as the empirical basis of scientific research and as “life experience” aimed at expanding the horizon of understanding reality)

Идеи космизма как философское основание эволюционно-экологического мышления (размышление над книгой)

Evolutionary-ecological thinking, in contemporary conditions, is a relevant di­rection in the synthesis of evolutionism and ecology. The ideas of wholeness, organicism, and historicity, which form the core of the reflections of the main representatives of the philosophy of Russian cosmism, largely set the world­view tone for this direction. These ideas are becoming increasingly relevant in modern conditions, where space exploration presents itself as a global prob­lem related to overcoming the negative consequences of the ecological crisis. The author’s focus is on the collective monograph Russian Cosmism: N.F. Fe­dorov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, V.I. Vernadsky, A.L. Chizhevsky, published in the series Russian Philosophy of the First Half of the XXth Century, whose authors dis­cuss the worldview and methodological specifics of the concepts of Russian cosmists in the context of contemporary problems (including ecological and evolutionary ones). Among them, especially important in this context are the con­cepts of the common task (N.N. Fedorov), the cosmic philosophy (K.E. Tsiol­kovsky), the doctrine of the noosphere (V.I. Vernadsky), and heliobiology (A.L. Chizhevsky). It is shown that the ideas of cosmism and evolutionary-eco­logical thinking are connected with such directions as A. Bergson’s creative evolution, P. Teilhard de Chardin’s theistic evolutionism, planetary evolution, and macroevolutionary research. It is precisely at the scale of the biosphere and noosphere that evolutionary and ecological principles intersect the most. The construction of the noosphere, taking into account contemporary scientific and methodological realities, is a direction of evolutionary-ecological thinking in our time

У. Джеймс и С. Франк: две интерпретации «пари Паскаля»

Blaise Pascal is considered one of the most influential thinkers of his time, and his questions about the nature and position of man in the world remain relevant to this day. Pascal’s famous wager continues to be a subject of discussion among thinkers of various orientations. This article analyzes two interpretations of Pas­cal’s famous argument in defense of religious faith – those of W. James and S.L. Frank. By examining both thinkers’ interpretations of Pascal’s Wager, the article highlights the distinctive perspectives of W. James and S.L. Frank on the concept of religious experience. The basis for this comparison is the re­ception of W. James’s philosophical and religious ideas by the Russian philo­sopher. James’s ideas were relevant during the Russian religious renaissance of the early 20th century, receiving both positive reviews and criticism. The author of the article identifies similarities and differences in the two interpretations of Pascal’s Wager, which allows for a deeper understanding of the philosophical spirit of both W. James and S.L. Frank. It is emphasized that the views of the Ame­rican pragmatist and the ideological interpretation of the wager by the Russian philosopher share a particular approach to the concept of religious experience. Turning to the ideas of W. James and S.L. Frank provides a foundation for as­serting that, on the ground of the domestic intellectual tradition, both religious experience and religious philosophy are “integrated” into the philosophy of com­munication, transcending purely religious thought

Между имперским и постимперским дискурсом: идеи империи и революции в оптике исследователей XXI века (Рец. на: Идея империи и идея революции в русской философии и культуре XIX–XX веков: коллективная монография / отв. ред. И.И. Евлампиев. СПб.: Изд-во РХГА, 2023. 420 с.)

The paper analyses the collective monograph: “The Idea of Empire and the Idea of Revolution in Russian Philosophy and Culture of the XIX–XX Centuries”, its content being a reflection on one of the most intellectually acute and complex contradictions of Russian history – the problem of empire and revolution. This problem invariably awakens philosophical thought, forcing it to search for an explanation of the notorious “pendulum of Russian history”, the genesis of power, the vector and track of Russian history, which are intellectual outgrowths of the fundamental problem – the problem of Russian civilizational and state identity. The content of the work is an analysis of empire and revolution – the main concepts that are in the focus of philosophical interest and reflection in Russian culture of the XIX–XX centuries. Its aim is to demonstrate the theoretical demand to continue the analysis and philosophical reflection of the concepts of empire and revolution, with the task of rethinking and reinterpreting them. The thesis is presented about the inexhaustibly traditional historical-philosophical narrative (liberalism-conservatism) and the discursively traditional nature of the range of topics, problems and questions, centred on the concepts of “empire” and “revolution”, with the same inexhaustibly traditional duality of interpretation (“us–them”, “East–West”). The result of the analysis of the sections that make up the content of the monograph is the conclusion about the epistemological and axiological value of the concepts of empire and revolution, and the heuristic productivity of the works related to their analysis in the context of the challenges faced by the Russian society and state. The latter can be used as analytical tools for works that develop and deepen the problems of empire and revolution on a modern historiographical basis. The historiographical basis of the article is the works of well-known Russian and foreign authors specializing in this field of humanities, and the methodological basis is hermeneutic analysis with the involvement of the discourse of cultural studies, political science and history.

Этос и хронос Владимира Сергеевича Соловьева

The paper presents the theses of reflections of a member of the editorial board of the journal “Solovyov Studies”, which complement the discussion of the topic “Vladimir Solovyov and the Future of Russian Philosophy” held within the framework of the international “round table”. The special role and significance of the journal “Solovyov Studies” in the scientific study of the work of the outstanding Russian religious thinker is pointed out. Over the decades of its existence, the journal has published hundreds of scientific articles by highly qualified domestic and foreign authors, outstanding scientists and novice researchers who have made a significant contribution to the study of the work of Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov. These works are in demand today in a variety of areas of humanities – in cultural studies and philosophy, history of literature, literary criticism, religious studies and theology. This work also presents a thesis statement of the conceptual ideas of V.S. Solovyov, which have not lost their relevance in our days, but on the contrary, have acquired special acuteness and significance. In particular, it is shown that the “theocratic project” of the thinker, despite its seeming utopianism, attracts the attention of not only intellectuals, but also public and political figures in the West and in Russia. In modern Russian society, the topic of the ethos and chronos of the “Russian idea” is again being discussed with particular acuteness. One of its sources was precisely the philosophy of V.S. Solovyov. Russia, in the understanding of V.S. Solovyov, realizes God's plan for it, this is its providential ethos. Its historical mission is simultaneously moral (ethos) and providential (chronos) – it is the mission of uniting Christian civilization.

Об актуальности наследия Вл.С. Соловьева

The general characteristics of the materials of the International “Round table” “Relevance of V.S. Solovyov's legacy: philosophy, philology, cultural studies (modernity calls and possible answers)” devoted to the discussion of the problems of V.S. Solovyov's legacy research are presented. The initiator and organizer of the scientific event was the editorial board of the journal “Solovyov studies”. The discussion was attended by Russian and foreign specialists – philosophers, philologists, cultural scientists from the largest universities and academic centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ivanovo, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaliningrad, Kostroma, Saransk, Astrakhan. Foreign participants are researchers of V.S. Solovyov's legacy from Italy, Spain, and France. It is noted that the discussion participants focused on the problems of historiography and source studies of Russian philosophy in general and the legacy of V.S. Solovyov. The relevance of the ethical vector of his historiosophical ideas is pointed out to the philosophical unreasonableness and politicization of modern attacks on Solovyov's legacy, the lack of a fundamental scientific and philosophical research program. Attention is drawn to the need for further research into the historical and philosophical context of the formation of V.S. Solovyov's philosophical views and their influence on the subsequent development of culture, on the prospects of the projects “logic of unity” and “philosophy of neo-unity” being developed. The relevance of the idea of Christian unity by V.S. Solovyov is noted. Promising directions for further philological study of his work are revealed. The role of the journal “Solovyov Studies” in the development of Russian and foreign Solovyov studies is determined.

В.С. Соловьев и современные проблемы историографии и источниковедения русской философии

The article presents answers to the following questions formulated by the editorial board of the journal “Solovyov Studies”: How do you assess the current state of research in this field and, in particular, the heritage of V.S. Solovyov? Is there obvious success in publishing the heritage of Russian philosophers and rather sufficient activity of relevant studies? What are the failures and what, in your opinion, are the reasons for them? In recent years in the community of researchers of the history of Russian philosophy one can hear the opinion that the philosophical heritage of V.S. Solovyov is irrelevant. In your opinion, has Solovyov lost his relevance? What aspects of his philosophical, literary and journalistic legacy have not yet been sufficiently developed, are there prospects for the development of the philosophy of unitotality, or does it belong entirely to history? The significance of V.S. Solovyov's legacy as the first, most developed philosophical system and the relevance of his teachings as the most successful example of philosophical thought in Russian are considered. The contribution of V.S. Solovyov to the development of philosophical terminology in Russia is pointed out. A brief outline of the historiography of Russian philosophy is given. It is noted that there is not a large number of critical editions of the sources of Russian philosophy, that the research of the history of Russian philosophy is not a priority in national science and educational policy, that there is not enough historiographical reflection. Modern researchers of Russian philosophy have not formulated fundamentally new approaches and belong to the same historiographical paradigm as the authors of the early 20th century. The situation can be changed by creating a new historical and philosophical narrative.

Актуальность философского наследия Владимира Соловьева: вызовы современности и возможные ответы

The study is dedicated to the current problems in the philosophical heritage of Vladimir Solovyov, which are most in demand nowadays. The introduction of the concept of “Russian classical philosophy” in relation to Solovyov and his followers is justified. The thesis about the philosophical groundlessness and politicization of recent attacks on Solovyov’s legacy, about the inclination of his metaphysical opponents to the priority of the multiplicity and ontological dualism is put forward. An assessment of the possibilities of contemporary Russian philosophy is made, it should satisfy two requirements: preserving all the positive aspects of the philosophy of Solovyov and his successors and taking into account the rich experience of foreign thought of the twentieth century, rooted in the same traditions as Russian classical philosophy.

The Formation of the Russian Philosophical Language in Its Institutional Aspect: Toward a Formulation of the Problem

The Formation of the Russian Philosophical Language in Its Institutional Aspect: Toward a Formulation of the Problem

The origins of Russophobia: on the issue of social and political culture of interstate relations

The article examines the concept and implementation of the principle of «Russophobia» as a type of socio-cultural intolerance. The relevance of addressing this topic is justified by the modern realities of the socio-political confrontation of Western countries in relation to Russia. Particular attention is paid to the causes of Russophobia and the main trends in its manifestation in the modern world. The research was carried out using the method of socio-historical analysis, the epistemological method of analyzing literary, journalistic and scientific sources. The research examines concepts formed in different periods of history that comprehend this phenomenon. Based on reflections on Russophobia by authoritative Russian philosophers, writers and publicists, it has been proved that the Russophobic narrative, starting from the 16th century, became a stable ideological trend reflecting the expansionist interests of Western elites. As Russia strengthened on the world stage, Russophobia intensified. The ideological «crusade» against Orthodox Rus' was launched by European travelers of the 17th-19th centuries, who created a negative image of our country in the Western world. Currently, the countries of the united West have declared a «sacred war» against Russia. A powerful propaganda campaign was launched, directed against Russia and everything Russian. The authors of the article give a moral and ethical assessment of the sociopolitical processes of a new surge of Russophobia in modern conditions. It is suggested that in the current conditions it is necessary to carry out an open international fight against Russophobia and create a system of our own channels of influence in the Western information space, as well as counteract internal Russophobia using cultural and educational methods.

Нужен ли философской антропологии «социогенетический поворот»?

Philosophical anthropology, which arose each time in a specific historical reality, sought to create a universal image of man, calling this process the revelation of his essence. This problem was solved by Russian philosophy, which developed the Orthodox Christian tradition within certain historical boundaries. Modern philosophy, solving this problem, cannot ignore the basic philosophical and anthropological ideas of different civilizations, primarily Eastern, Western and Russian philosophy. The space for their comparison and synthesis can be the semantic conceptual field of sociogenesis, which opens up a universal approach to the formation of a human being as a global cultural and biological species. The sociogenetic approach reveals the opportunity to compare two main essential models of man, which are represented by the version of the self-sufficient individual, which developed in the European Enlightenment, and the version of the conciliar (communal) man, the discussion of which began in Russian philosophy of the 19th century. In the context of sociogenesis, the basis for distinguishing anthropological versions is the opposition of individualistic and communal (conciliar) principles of behavior. A specifi c synthesis of these principles in one or another cultural-historical model appears as a solution to the contradiction between the individual and species model of behavior within the cultural-biological species “human being”. In the natural world, the coordination of individual and species behavior is resolved through the genetic inheritance of species behavior, eliminating the conflict between species and individual. The sociogenetic evolution of a human being has posed the task of searching for species-specifi c universal principles of behavior, which has complicated the solution of the problem of harmonizing species and individual behavior. The complexity of the situation is that human behavior is directed by cultural programs in the context of a sociogenetic search for a species program capable of ensuring the global consolidation of the human species. In this context, philosophical anthropology requires a sociogenetic support, and the appeal to it can be called the “sociogenetic turn” in philosophical anthropology.

Социально-философские и философско-антропологические мотивы в поэтическом творчестве Н.С. Гумилёва

The present research paper is devoted to philosophic motifs in the creative work of one of the leading cultural figures of the Silver Age, the poet, writer and philosopher N.S. Gumilyov. His personal fate (executed in 1921 by order of the Petrograd Cheka) is one of the examples of the sad poetic “tradition” of Russian culture: Pushkin, Lermontov, Mayakovsky, Yesenin and others. This paper analyzes philosophical and linguistic peculiarities of the “Akmeism” poetic and theoretical style, which was originated by Nikola Gumilev. In socio-philosophical aspect, Gumilyov’s intentions were associated with the formation of the concept of “Adamism”, which implied the analysis of man as a personality (most fully reflected in the compositions “The Captains”, “The Conquistadors’ Way”, etc.) in comparison with the Nietzschean “superman”. For Nietzsche, his slogan ‘God is dead’ did not mean the exaltation of man, but merely stated the overabundance of the individual in every personality. In this case, Gumilyov adhered to the idea of “transcendental man”, which implied the unity of Man’s natural essence in synthesis with supernatural (higher, i.e. spiritual) origins. This was the purpose of this article. Analysis of Gumilyov’s poetic and publicistic works argues in favour of the proof of the philosophical idea of “transcendental man”, which was later developed in N.A. Berdyaev’s philosophy of personalism. Both Russian philosophers and writers defended the idea of a creative and free Man, capable of self-assertion. Self-affirmation of Man for them is inextricably linked with the ability to Self-knowledge. But it should be noted that the views of Berdyaev and Gumilev on the role of society and the state in human life had certain differences.

Возможность сохранения традиционных социокультурных ориентиров человечества при реализации трансгуманистического проекта

The article is devoted to the search for the optimal path of controlled techno-bio-socio evolution, which will pre-serve the humanity’s traditional constants. Based on the previously conducted research, the author argues that compliance with the principle of continuity is possible only if the program of moderate transhumanism, which involves a delicate modernization of human nature while preserving its essence, is implemented. A similar transhumanist narrative is also evident in early 20th-century Russian scientific thought. The conducted compara-tive analysis of the main provisions of Russian philosophy of the Silver Age and the philosophy of moderate transhumanism allows us to assert that they coincide in terms of determining the limits of redesigning human nature. The humaneness and ethical elaboration of the ideas of Russian thinkers provide grounds for their use as socio-cultural guidelines for the philosophy of moderate transhumanism. The methodological basis of the study is the principles of systemic and comparative historical approaches. According to the author, these princi-ples enable the achievement of a synergistic effect, thereby enriching the concept of moderate transhuman-ism.

From the history of the lexeme ticket in Russian: from a word to a precedent phenomenon (on the material of F. M. Dostoevsky’s works)

This article considers the lexeme ticket as a representative example of those words that outlasted the golden age of semantic and cultural-historical evolution in the Russian language. We analyse possible extralinguistic and intralinguistic reasons for extending the lexical combinability and semantic spectrum of the lexeme ticket in the second half of the 19th century. These causes determined the gradual increase in the mental significance of the word, as well as the origins of its loss of conceptual significance in the period after 1917. The fact that the word ticket could have the status of a concept in the Russian language of the second half of the 19th century can be proved based on F. M. Dostoevsky’s texts. His works not only show the ample lexical combinability of the analysed lexeme, but also provide examples of its metaphorical use. The research employed the historical, descriptive, and comparative methods in conjunction with semantic and componential analysis. The paper concludes that the number of meanings and meaning shades of the word ticket increased considerably in the second half of the 19th century. Thus, its lexical combinability extended, and the lexeme reached the semantic evolution peak. As a result, any piece of paper with any text was actually called a ticket. The general linguistic significance of the word gradually developed into a conceptual one, which was reflected in F. M. Dostoevsky’s writings. His texts contain the best examples of the philosophical and metaphorical use of the lexeme. For instance, the image of a ticket returned to God in the novel "The Brothers Karamazov" became a precedent phenomenon in the works of Russian philosophers and writers.