Philosophy Of Science Research Articles

“The value-free ideal, the autonomy thesis, and cognitive diversity”

Some debates about the role of non-epistemic values in science discuss the so-called Value-Free Ideal together with the autonomy thesis, to the point that they may be assumed to be intertwined. As I will argue in this article, the two are independent from one another, are supported by different arguments, and ought to be disentangled. I will also show that the arguments against value-freedom and supporting a value-laden conception of science, are different from the arguments against autonomy, which support democratized science. Moreover, while some of the arguments against autonomy and for democratized science may actually be consistent with value-freedom, they conflict with some philosophical views about the internal diversity of well-designed epistemic communities. This article distinguishes the Value-Free Ideal and the autonomy thesis, as well as their antitheses, and investigates their relations to some of the socio-epistemological models of the social organization of scientific research. Its aim is to make explicit some incompatibilities between different normative frameworks developed in philosophy of science.

Recontextualizing Max Weber’s Ideal Type

Abstract In this article, I recontextualize Weber’s ideal type in the philosophy of natural science and economics in terms of idealization. The goal is to promote the appreciation of this methodology in contemporary social science and improve upon some Weberians’ underdeveloped interpretations. Drawing on Weber’s methodological writing and study of the Protestant ethic, I argue that the philosophy of idealization and Weber’s ideal type share methodological characteristics: both support the selection of a research topic by isolating a particular component of reality and then constructing an imagination based on empirical materials and thought experimentation. By using the imagination as a benchmark, investigators counterfactually and contrastively explain why a particular case was observed as it was, as opposed to other possible outcomes.

Normative empirical concepts – a practical guiding tool for economists

ABSTRACT Economists use a variety of normative empirical concepts because the economy and morality are intertwined. Often, this normativity is intended and widely acknowledged, signaling the relevance and meaning of research. Sometimes, the objectivity of research and the findings obtained by using normative concepts is problematic. Written from the perspective of a practicing economist, the article offers a practical guiding tool to economists, suggesting how to be responsible in developing and using normative empirical concepts. It is based on valuable insights from the philosophy of science and codes of conduct. It illustrates the use of the guiding tool with the example of a normative empirical concept that is widely used in development economics: ‘ethnic fractionalization’. The conclusion is that applied economists should be more involved in being accountable for the normativity in our work and that we should ensure that, by using the tool, the normative concepts that we use are acceptable.

Medicine, Life, and Transformations of Matter

This Ambix special issue explores premodern alchemical ideas and practices in their entanglements with medicine. It employs diverse methods, from traditional close reading to the new distant-reading framework of computational humanities, to investigate alchemical thought over a timespan of several centuries. In medieval times, everyday practices could offer heuristic models of material transformation – such as the fermentation of bread as a model for metallic transmutation (Schmechel). Paracelsus relied on “fire” to link his natural philosophy with his medical alchemy; new computational methods show how his ideas evolved over time (Hedesan). Early modern medical pluralism favoured the thriving of chemical medicine in Italy; diplomatic efforts introduced chemical remedies into acknowledged pharmacopoeias (Clericuzio). An English physician offers William Cavendish both practical distillation recipes and the hope of learning more about the principles of chemistry (Begley). In eighteenth-century France, Diderot draws on chemical ideas to blur the conceptual boundary between living and non-living matter (Wolfe). The papers largely adhere to integrated history and philosophy of science (iHPS) and to a pragmatist “operational ideal of knowledge” (Chang). They showcase the interdisciplinarity of premodern scientific thought and examine how medicine and alchemy, but also theory and (everyday) practice informed each other fruitfully across the ages.

Good reasons, real questions and proper aims: Hasok Chang on the rationality of the chemical revolution

ABSTRACT In this article, we provide a detailed discussion of Hasok Chang’s analysis of the Chemical Revolution. Our focus lies on his use of the framework of systems of practice and his claim that the abandonment of the phlogiston theory was irrational. We argue that his framework runs into problems when applied to the chemical revolution because of its static view on the aims of the historical actors and we suggest using Nicholas Jardine’s concept of the reality of questions instead as a more flexible historiographical tool. We show how Chang’s claim regarding the irrational aspects of the chemical revolution follows from his strictly individualistic epistemology, leading him to see institutional and social aspects that impact the determination of aims as external to scientific rationality. We argue that a viable pragmatist and pluralist philosophy of science needs to embrace ‘academic politics’ as an explicit part of its view of rationality.

Features of Feminist Approach to Scientific Research

Feminist philosophy is one of the leading areas of contemporary philosophy. It has been actively developing over decades and has significant contributions in various areas of theoretical and practical philosophy. Feminist philosophy of science is particularly interesting, as it is primarily responsible for feminist formulations of basic methodological statements of feminist approach to scientific research. The goal of this article is to determine the main features of feminist approach to scientific research. In order to achieve this goal, the article analyzes the main ideas of feminist philosophy of science regarding the criticism of the ideal of value-free science, reviewing and rethinking the meaning of objectivity, and reflections on feminist methodology. Accordingly, the article consists of an introduction, three parts, and conclusion. The first part is dedicated to the causes and effects of feminist criticism of the value-free ideal of science. In the second part, feminist reflections about objectivity are outlined, drawing on the views of such prominent feminist philosophers as Sandra Harding, Helen Longino, Elisabeth Lloyd, and Heather Douglas. The relevance of these reflections for feminist historiography of philosophy is also noted. The third part addresses the question of whether there is a feminist method and explores the traits and typical properties of a feminist methodology. In conclusion, the main features of feminist approach to scientific research are formulated. These include attention to the role of values in producing and applying scientific knowledge, a preference to explanations that account for details and complexity over simplification and generalization, consideration of women’s experience, consideration of usefulness of diversity within scientific communities to mitigate assumptions and prejudices, belief is compatibility of objectivity and value-ladenness, openness to criticism, and self-reflection.

The Essence and Epistemological Significance of the Conceptual Dispute between Fallibilism and Infallibilism

For hundreds of years, almost all representatives of philosophical epistemology have assumed that human knowledge should be based on irrefutable, infallible and absolute foundation. Finding such stable epistemological milestones that will serve as the epistemological basis for the formation of infallible knowledge, cognition, and the creation of more fundamental concepts of knowledge—and, as the ultimate goal, cognition and true knowledge—was the dream of many philosophers and epistemologists. The epistemological dispute of fallibilism and infallibilism is highly valuable when viewed through the lens of the presented problem. A decision in favour of either side may lead one to reconsider issues such as the nature and justification of knowledge, the objectivity of scientific knowledge, the possibility of cognition, the nature of truth and its criteria, truth as the end goal of scientific research and cognition, and the issues surrounding the growth and progress of science. These issues are fundamental and guiding issues for the future development of philosophical epistemology and philosophy of science. Despite the fact that various attempts have been made to study the epistemological dispute of opposing concepts, especially since the 19th century, and each of the concepts separately has been the subject of numerous studies throughout the history of philosophy, nevertheless, today there is still no unified understanding of the essence of the epistemological dispute of fallibilism and infallibilism, the main range of problems and questions of the latter, as well as the epistemological meaning of the conceptual dispute. The study and analysis of the essence of an epistemological dispute, the clarification of its epistemological meaning, as well as the identification in the context of the dispute and the framework of epistemological and scientific problems arising from it are considered the central points of this work. To this end , the following tasks and questions were set in the article: 1. What is the essence and epistemological significance of the dispute between fallibilism and infallibilism? 2. What range of problems does an epistemological dispute suggest? 3. What is the significance of the epistemological dispute between fallibilism and infallibilism from the perspective of understanding, rethinking and solving the problems of philosophical epistemology and philosophy of science?

Juxtaposition across Mathematical Modeling, Stochastic Processes along with the Lenses of Philosophy of Science and AI integration in Medicine and Biology: An Overview

The ultimate reason for the ubiquity of mathematics in modern science entails the essence of mathematical thinking and processes so that complex phenomena including those emerging in medical and biological systems can be understood, and thus, scientific models at their crux can be generated. The consequent complexities and uncertainties require the applications of stochastic processes in mathematical modeling with Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques used in realms of medicine and biology. Within these conditions, clinical evaluation evidence and model explainability are considered to ensure accountable, effective and safe uses of AI in clinical settings, along with robust, reliable as well as accurate understanding of various complex processes that manifest huge numbers of heterogeneous temporospatial scales. The role of philosophy within science can be expounded by its juxtaposition with models and empirical data explicated by philosophy whose pillars are driven into semantic, pragmatic and syntactic structures of scientific theory that also make up the foundational tenets of algorithmic thinking and patterns. While philosophy of science examines and reflects on the concepts, theories, arguments and methods of science, it should also be borne in mind that scientific theory, by its definition, relates to applications validated by its predictions as units of analyses. Concerning mathematical models, their structure and behavior in target systems are also to be addressed so that explicit common patterns that are implicit in scientific practice can be included in this complex influx. On the other hand, critical functions of mathematical modeling from the pragmatic aspect include the unification of models and data, model fitting to the data, identification of mechanisms depending on observations as well as predictions of future observations. Given these, philosophy of science in medical and biological fields is stated to prompt a comprehensive understanding to construct holistic mathematical models particularly in complex sciences including different attributes of complexity, evolution and adaptation. Regarding the position of AI, its algorithms and mathematical modeling, the methods of neural networks, statistics, operations research, fractional calculus, fractals, and so forth can be employed with AI being capable of uncovering hidden insights embedded in big data concerning medical and biological issues in view of contemporary scientific thinking and processes. In addition, the treatment and handling of uncertainty in clinical medicine and biological problems over their processes may disclose compelling challenges due the fact that uncertainties are one of the intrinsic features of nearly all mathematical models which are formed based on three basic types of uncertainty: interval, Bayesian and stochastic. Accordingly, the current overview aims at providing answers built on sophisticated models considering the explanation and interpretation of design and formulation considering that the extant research literature could have some fragmented points in terms of original and application-oriented works. To these ends, the opportunities, challenges, limitations and conjunctures with respect to mathematical modeling in medicine and biology are addressed while role of philosophy of science is discussed within the context of mathematical modeling and applications in medicine and biology. In addition to these points, the delineation of forecasting, prediction, estimation and approximation concerning different mathematical modeling with the integration of AI in medicine and biology is explained. Thereby, an overview is inclusively presented by comprising the principles underpinning the medical and biological systems within a framework in relation to the diagnostic and disease-related treatment processes and follow-up, which can provide new directions in novel formulations, designs and interpretations based on mathematical modeling processes to be constructed and solved through practicality as well as to-the-point specific means.

"Development of Technology and Science as a Need for the Future of Education: Philosophy of Science"

Technological advances have had a significant impact on the world of education, especially in the learning process. Information and Communication Technology (ICT), as part of science and technology (IPTEK), includes all technologies related to the retrieval, collection (acquisition), processing, storage, dissemination, and presentation of information. Even until the beginning of the 21st century, it is believed that the ICT field will continue to grow rapidly and has not shown signs of saturation for the next few decades. At the global level, the development of ICT has affected every aspect of human life. The integration of ICT into various fields of technology has reached such a level that there is not a single piece of equipment resulting from technological innovation that does not utilize ICT devices.

The General Law of Being, Article 3: The Ultimate Cause of Evolution

This is the third article in a series about the General Law of Being, a science philosophy that was introduced by Chinese scholar Wang Dongyue twenty years ago and then expanded upon by Chen Ye, who linked it to other scientific and philosophical traditions as well as to Big History. We encourage readers to review the previous two articles in the Journal of Big History, volume 6, issues 1 and 2. Article 1 addressed how all entities in the universe – ‘beings’ – are finite and dependent. Horizontally, their existence is realized through the structural coupling of their interactive-quality with other being(s)’s interactable-quality, and vertically through the superposition of their historical structural-coupling states. Article 2 reveals the interplay of the two opposite forces that govern evolution – conservation and variation. This evolution / variation progress occurs through the differentiation of beings, level by level – each level of organization results from differentiation of beings at a lower level of organization, with the ‘adaptation task’ distributed to specialized roles at higher levels. However, this ascent comes with a trade-off – the existence of a higher-level being depends on an increasing number of conditions. These conditions not only facilitate its functioning but also expose it to greater risks, which means that higher-level beings have weaker, or more unstable structures. Meanwhile, the increasing number of conditions perplexes the sense-reaction process, giving rise to more advanced cognitive patterns to coordinate the process. In this article, we first examine the situation of the most sophisticated ‘natural’ structure formed by the most complex species – human society, by applying the fundamental principles discussed in Articles 1 and 2. We then systematize various clues in macro-evolution and based on theories previously outlined, we build our model of evolution to address the ultimate driving force behind evolution.

Varieties of Bias

AbstractThe concept of bias is pervasive in both popular discourse and empirical theorizing within philosophy, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence. This widespread application threatens to render the concept too heterogeneous and unwieldy for systematic investigation. This article explores recent philosophical literature attempting to identify a single theoretical category—termed ‘bias’—that could be unified across different contexts. To achieve this aim, the article provides a comprehensive review of theories of bias that are significant in the fields of philosophy of mind, cognitive science, machine learning, and epistemology. It focuses on key examples such as perceptual bias, implicit bias, explicit bias, and algorithmic bias, scrutinizing their similarities and differences. Although these explorations may not conclusively establish the existence of a natural theoretical kind, pursuing the possibility offers valuable insights into how bias is conceptualized and deployed across diverse domains, thus deepening our understanding of its complexities across a wide range of cognitive and computational processes.

SOROTAN AWAL FALSAFAH ILMU ISLAM: PERMASALAHAN, PENSEJARAHAN, DEFINISI DAN SUMBER ILMU DALAM ISLAM

The post-modern age has discarded great narratives such as knowledge and truth which led to crisis of thought such as atheism, agnosticism and liberalism among Muslims. Among the causes surrounding crisis is the epistemological issues. Knowledge that is acquired through scientific methods only is considered valid which causes olther knowledge such as religious knowledge to be seen as ancient, old-fashioned, unscientific and incompatible with the development of the times. This study aims to analyze the philosophy of knowledge according to the Islamic perspective from the aspects of problems, historiography, definitions and sources of knowledge. The Islamic philosophy of knowledge that is centered upon the unity of revelation and reason can be an initial guide in facing the epistemic crisis within the post-modern era. This study uses the of content analysis methods towards books that bring together aspects of the philosophy of science. The study founds that the Islamic philosophy of knowledge to be integrated, comprehensive, and combines religio-philosophy based on the framework of the Quran. In addition, the philosophy of Islamic knowledge also covers a wide field of knowledge including matters related to divinity and religion.

Vklad russkih emigrantov v kul'turnyj obmen mezhdu Zapadom i Vostokom v Severo-Vostochnom Kitae (1896–1959 gg.)

After the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway began in 1896, a large number of Russian emigrants appeared in Northeastern China, who were involved in cultural, educational and religious activities in settlements located along the CER. This contributed to the spread of European social and natural science, culture and religion in Northeast China. At the same time, Russian emigrants used Western methodology and philosophy of science to study Chinese politics, economics, history, geography, religion, art and philosophy, contributing to the spread of Chinese studies in Russia and in the world. This activity was aimed at demonstrating authentic Chinese culture to the world, and its representatives acted as cultural intermediaries, promoting cultural exchange between Russia and China and spreading the achievements of Western civilization among the Chinese.

Critical Contextual Empiricism and the Politics of Knowledge

What are philosophers doing when they prescribe a particular epistemology for science? According to science and technology studies, the answer to this question implicates both knowledge and politics, even when the latter is hidden. Exploring this dynamic via a specific case, I argue that Longino’s “critical contextual empiricism” ultimately relies on a form of political liberalism. Her choice to nevertheless foreground epistemological concerns can be clarified by considering historical relationships between science and society, as well as the culture of academic philosophy. This example, I conclude, challenges philosophers of science to consider the political ideals and accountability entailed by their prescribed knowledge practices.

M. Amin Abdullah's Contribution to Contemporary Islamic Studies through the Philosophy of Islamic Sciences

This article aims to determine M. Amin Abdullah's contribution to contemporary Indonesian Islamic studies through the Philosophy of Islamic Sciences. This is motivated by the fact that Islamic studies in Indonesia have experienced stagnation and rigidity, so it is necessary to provide the right solution through new methods and approaches. This article uses qualitative methods, library research, and descriptive-analytical data analysis techniques. Thus, this article concludes that Amin Abdullah has succeeded in providing a new paradigm for developing contemporary Indonesian Islamic studies. He presents the Philosophy of Islamic Sciences to deconstruct the reconstruction of Islamic studies by linking classical sciences with contemporary sciences. By offering various concepts of thought from intellectual figures, he produces a framework for Islamic studies that is progressive, new, transformative, fresh, not static, and relevant to the times' demands and science's development. He contributes his thoughts on Islamic studies in Indonesia using multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary methods based on the integration-interconnection scientific paradigm. The results of his thinking can foster a broader foundation for Muslim thinking, and contemporary Islamic studies can face the challenges of a more complex era.

CRITICISMS ON ONTOLOGICAL RELATIVISM OF MODERN SCIENCE BY SYED MUHAMMAD NAQUIB AL-ATTAS AND SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR

Postmodern approaches to science introduce various methods, and result in multiple explanations and competing theories. This has exacerbated the science war in philosophy of science. The ongoing disputes known as ‘science war’ is a consequence of ontological disputes within the philosophical branch of metaphysics. Even though science had denied the importance of metaphysics in its practice, this paper argues that the recognition of philosophy specifically that in regards to metaphysics is a solution to the confusion arising from relativism of knowledge. As part of a preliminary attempt to confront this problem, this paper focuses on the criticisms of Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas and Seyyed Hossein Nasr on the ontology of modern science, which issues from the denial of metaphysics by modern scientists. Their views on ontology are part of both scholars’ Islamic philosophy of science. This is a qualitative research based on historical, doctrinal and comparative analysis of the primary works by the two scholars. The arguments are presented within the scope of philosophy of science based on the framework of the Islamic intellectual tradition. Thus, we find that a wider and transcendental epistemology is possible for understanding the multiple levels of reality subsumed within the metaphysics of Islam, which opens the door to reality and truth.

Formation of conceptual representations of reality on the basis of reflective practice (research experience)

Introduction. The transition from ordinary perceptions of reality to conceptualized ones is a significant problem of philosophical education. The aim of this article is to identify the ways of this transition in the course of doctoral students' work with modern philosophical literature, to substantiate ontological and epistemological principles of understanding reality, and to summarize modern approaches to solving this problem. Materials and Methods. On the basis of teaching practice, which goes back to Socrates' Maieutic method, the principle of “pro et contra”, and substantially determined by the discussions of realists and anti-realists about the nature of reality, the ways of strengthening the discipline of judgment, improving the reflexive culture, clarifying the bases of one's own ideas about the world and formalizing them in a thoughtful system of judgments are revealed. The method of research into the formation of conceptual representations of reality involves analyzing the ways of transition from unconsidered opinions through the recognition of their insufficiency and unsatisfactoriness to such knowledge, which Plato called ‘theory’ (θεωρία), i.e. rationally constructed principles of analytics. In this methodological approach (communicative-competence - in the modern formulation), the very sequence of cognitive acts is important: from ordinary ‘naïve’ perceptions - to a clear understanding of the complexity of the problem - then to the formation of questions in the audience that lead beyond a surface view of reality - and to the possible conceptual coherence and validity of perceptions of reality. Results. In the course of History and Philosophy of Science for doctoral students, the author proposed and justified the use of a three-level construct of moving from everyday representations of reality to conceptually meaningful ones. At the first level it was proposed to give an intuitive definition of the concept of ‘reality’; at the second level to analyze it, relying on sources from among those recommended by the lecturer or chosen independently, then briefly formulate the essence of realistic and anti-realistic approaches and identify the logic of one of them, and at the third level to move to the opposite position and present the relevant arguments. The author summarized the results of this procedure, which includes critical overcoming of ordinary statements about the nature of reality and dialogue between opposite conceptual solutions to the problem, and substantiated that such practice gives the effect of “awakened consciousness” and becomes the basis for readiness to conduct an internal dialogue on complex philosophical problems. Conclusions. The skills of reality analysis presented in the article develop and improve the reflexive practice of young researchers, clarify the basis of their own perceptions of the world, formalize them in a reasoned and critically elaborated system of judgments, and form their readiness to solve complex problems in science and philosophy.

Disclosure of the True Essence of Quantum Theory on the Basis of Scientific Philosophy

It is well known that in 1900, after Planck obtained the basic equation of quantum theory, there came a moment when it became necessary to obtain a theoretical justification of this equation. In 1911, based on the possibility of Gibbs' canonical distribution function (CDF), he solved this problem partially: he obtained a justification for the second multiplier of his equation. Then on the basis of the analysis of these results he stated that henceforth in the role of the basic concept of quantum theory there is a necessity to accept the possibility of the concept of the quantum of action. However, Poincaré at the same congress criticized these new ideas. For he recognized the value of the idea of the quantum of action in solving only frequent problems. Therefore, he further, in his article entitled "On the Theory of Quanta", made the following conclusion: in his opinion, the main essence of quantum theory is connected with the concept of the quantum of energy [1]. Thus, he wanted to say that in the future the main results of Planck's quantum theory have the possibility to substantiate only if the possibility of the concept of energy quantum is taken as more general. In this paper an attempt is made to prove that it is really so.

Reinhold's "letters on kantian philosophy": their significance for Kant and german philosophy

The article is devoted primarily to the analysis of Reinhold’s Letters on Kantian Philosophy, published in the “Der Teutsche Merkur” (German Mercury) 1786-1787. The purpose of this analysis is to reveal the peculiarities of Reinhold’s interpretation of Kant’s philosophy, as well as the possibility of the influence of these letters on Kant's practical philosophy and the further development of German idealism in general. To more clearly define Reinhold's own position, the article turns to Reinhold's early works, written before Letters, as well as to the 1790 and 1923 editions of the Letters. Particular respect is given to three topics that are closely related to each other: “Why did Reinhold’s Letters bring fame to Kant?”, “To what extent was Reinhold an independent philosopher?” і “What kind of infusion did his Letters make into the development of Kant’s philosophy and German idealism?” The article proves that before 1786, Reinhold had, in general terms, formed a program for the reform of philosophy, which was critical in its nature and had a clearly expressed practical focus. However, Reinhold's criticism was closer to the criticism of the eclectics and Leibniz than of Kant: it was aimed at overcoming the limitations of the original points of view and assumed a deep knowledge of the history of philosophy. The main reason for the popularity of Reinhold’s Letters lies in his idea of the “scientific revolution” in Germany, which should have become an alternative to social revolutions in other countries of Europe. Formed in “pre-revolutionary” articles, this idea received its justification in the second edition of the Letters. It was the nationalist idea of transforming the Germans into a “nation of scientists”, that became the reason for the rise of national consciousness in Germany and attracted “thinking youth” to it Reinhold's program for the reform of all philosophical sciences from a generally valid point of view gave impetus and largely determined the further development of German classical philosophy: not only Fichte, but also Schelling and Hegel relied primarily on his program. The first edition of his Letters largely determined the main themes of the Critique of Practical Reason, and the second - the Metaphysics of Morals. The second edition inspired Kant to develop a system of criticism and the basic ideas of Kant’s philosophy of law.

Dari Ushul Fiqh Menuju Filsafat Fiqh: Membaca Gagasan ‘Abd al-Jabbar ar-Rifa’i Tentang Filsafat Fiqh

This article intends to elaborate in depth on Abd al-Jabbar ar-Rifa'i's (AJR) thoughts about the philosophy of fiqh. This topic is particular because AJR explicitly uses the term the philosophy of fiqh as a new study in Islamic law, as a new branch of ushul fiqh. To deeply explain the concept of the philosophy of fiqh and its position in Islamic law studies, the author uses qualitative descriptive research with a philosophical approach, especially the philosophy of science. This research found that AJR limits the philosophy of fiqh in a loose definition, whereas a material object, fiqh, is approached with a philosophical and sociological perspective. The philosophy of fiqh is also compared with other traditions in Islamic law studies, such as ushul fiqh and maqashid asy-syari’ah. With these broad boundaries, the AJR concept of the philosophy of fiqh is flexible. It opens up opportunities for developing broad fiqh studies when faced with developments in modern science and responding to various contemporary problems the Muslim community faces. The philosophy of fiqh in this article also shows the shifting paradigm cycle in the study of fiqh or Islamic law.