PHEV Applications Research Articles

Dedicated Adaptive Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for Digital Twin Based Control Optimization of the Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle

The digital twin (DT) is a promising technology that will provide a cyber-physical platform to enable rapid product development boosted by artificial intelligence and big data. This paper focuses on DT-based optimization of the energy management strategy (EMS) for a plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV). A dedicated adaptive particle swarm optimization (DAPSO) algorithm is developed to enhance the optimality and trustworthiness of the DT-based EMS optimization in a variety of driving conditions. By using the chassis dynamometer data, the DAPSO is developed by incorporating the widely-used PSO algorithm with an adaptive swarm control strategy that coordinates the exploration and exploitation of the individual swarming particles following the global information extracted from the swarm. With the cross-validation testing under three worldwide driving conditions, this study determines the unified settings of the DAPSO algorithm for the PHEV application. Experimental evaluations are conducted by monitoring the PHEV’s performance using different EMSs with control thresholds optimized by the DAPSO and conventional PSO algorithms (baseline). The results show that by introducing DAPSO for DT-based EMS optimization, up to 24% improvement in cost function value (weighted sum of the fuel consumption and SoC sustaining error) and more than 49.1% reduction in computing time can be achieved compared to the baseline methods.

Effective Computational Techniques of Reducing Cogging Torque in Permanent Magnet Flux Switching Machine

In this paper various techniques are applied to decrease cogging torque of overlap winding of permanent magnet flux switching machine (PMFSM) with 24-slot/16-pole. Due to its unique design PMFSM have mechanical strength, batter torque density and high flux linkage is a suitable candidate for electrical vehicle (EV). The major disadvantage of this design are high cogging torque and torque ripple while keeping constant average torque. Four various techniques are applied to minimalize the cogging torque of PMFSM to design it more suitable for PHEV applications. The legitimacy of these techniques has been observed by 3-D and 2-D simulations. Among all techniques the optimal result of Hybrid_C2 technique which reduces the cogging torque 66.28% with 0.7% loss in average torque.

Effective Computational Techniques of Reducing Cogging Torque in Permanent Magnet Flux Switching Machine

In this paper various techniques are applied to decrease cogging torque of overlap winding of permanent magnet flux switching machine (PMFSM) with 24-slot/16-pole. Due to its unique design PMFSM have mechanical strength, batter torque density and high flux linkage is a suitable candidate for electrical vehicle (EV). The major disadvantage of this design are high cogging torque and torque ripple while keeping constant average torque. Four various techniques are applied to minimalize the cogging torque of PMFSM to design it more suitable for PHEV applications. The legitimacy of these techniques has been observed by 3-D and 2-D simulations. Among all techniques the optimal result of Hybrid_C2 technique which reduces the cogging torque 66.28% with 0.7% loss in average torque.

Alternative utility factor versus the SAE J2841 standard method for PHEV and BEV applications

This article explores the potential of using real-world driving patterns to derive PHEV and BEV utility factors and evaluates how different travel and recharging behaviours affect the calculation of the standard SAE J2841 utility factor. The study relies on six datasets of driving data collected monitoring 508,607 conventional fuel vehicles in six European areas and a dataset of synthetic data from 700,000 vehicles in a seventh European area. Sources representing the actual driving behaviour of PHEV together with the WLTP European utility factor are adopted as term of comparison. The results show that different datasets of driving data can yield to different estimates of the utility factor. The SAE J2841 standard method results to be representative of a large variety of behaviours of PHEVs and BEVs' drivers, characterised by a fully-charged battery at the beginning of the trip sequence, thus being representative for fuel economy and emission estimates in the early phase deployment of EVs, charged at home and overnight. However the results show that the SAE J2841 utility factor might need to be revised to account for more complex future scenarios, such as necessity-driven recharge behaviour with less than one recharge per day or a fully deployed recharge infrastructure with more than one recharge per day.

Design and implementation of current fed DC-DC converter for PHEV application using renewable source

As the fossil fuels are depleting day by day, the use of renewable energy sources came into existence and they evolved a lot lately. To increase efficiency and productivity in the hybrid vehicles, the existence less efficient petroleum and diesel IC engines need to be replaced with the new and efficient converters with renewable energy sources. This has to be done in such a way that impacts three factors mainly: cost, efficiency and reliability. The PHEVs that have been launched and the upcoming PHEVs using converters with voltage range around 380V to 400V generated with power ranges between 2.4KW to 2.8KW. The basic motto of this paper is to design a prolific converter while considering the factor such as cost and size. In this paper, a two stage DC-DC converter is proposed and the proposed DC-DC converter is utilized to endeavour voltage from 24V (photovoltaic source) to a yield voltage of 400V and to meet the power demand of 250W, since only one panel is being used for this proposed paper. This paper discuss in detail about why and how the current fed DC-DC converter is utilized along with a voltage doubler, thus reducing transformer turns and thereby reducing overall size of the product. Simulation and hardware results have been presented along with calculations for duty cycle required for firing sequence for different values of transformer turns.

LiVxFeyPO4f Nanostructure Cathodes for Lithium Ion Batteries

Fluorophosphates, like LiVPO4F, are expected to show high operating voltage (4.2V), long term cycle life (~1260 cycles) and low capacity fade behavior compared to the currently favorables LiCoO2 (4.0V), LiFePO4 (3.5V), and LiFePO4F or LiFeSO4F, or NaFeSO4F. The LiVPO4F could replace the current cathode technology to enable the commercial production of low cost, high energy density and safe Li -ion batteries for EV and PHEV applications. However, electrolyte oxidation at higher potential and the formation of poly-vanadate compounds like Li3V2(PO4)3 as an impurity during the two step synthesis process must be controlled. By adopting appropriate surface modification, preferably by various ceramic oxides, carbon and phosphate (FePO4 and AlPO4 etc.) based coatings would be employed to reduce activity towards electrolyte. Soft-chemical synthesis offers numerous advantages for the formation of novel or advanced material forms including control over morphology (i.e., nanomaterials, coatings), phase, and composition. The controlled synthesis of nanomaterials and coatings, in particular, is imperative for the development of optical and electrical devices with ever-shrinking dimensions. Substitution of environmental friendly transition metal cations, such as Co or Mn or Fe or Mg, in between vanadium site using soft-chemical or precipitation methods, could lead towards reducing the toxicity and the cost. In brief description, on the synthesis of LiVxFeyPO4F, V2O5, NH4H2PO4, LiOH.H2O, Fe(NO3)2.9H2O,NH4F and oxalic acid were used as-received to prepare the precursor solution. Oxalic acid used as a chelating agent and a reducing agent. First, V2O5 and oxalic acid in a stoichiometric ratio of 1:3 dissolved in deionized water under magnetic stirring at room temperature until forms a clear solution. Second, a mixture of stoichiometricNH4H2PO4, Fe(NO3)2.9H2O, NH4F and LiOH. H2O were added to the solution, followed by vigorously stirred using a magnetic stirrer for 1 h. The mixture solution was heated to 80 °C under active stirring to evaporate the water for several hours until homogenous slurry formed. Finally, the slurry was kept in an oven at 120 °C overnight. The prepared material was pressed into pellets and calcinate at 650 °C for 8 h under a gas flow of 90% Ar and 10 % H2.

Thermal Management of Large-Format Prismatic Lithium-Ion Battery in PHEV Application

Thermal effects are linked to all main barriers to the widespread commercialization of lithium-ion battery powered vehicles. This paper presents a coupled 2D electrochemical – 3D thermal model of a large-format prismatic lithium-ion battery, including a thermal management system with a heat sink connected to the surface opposite the terminals, undergoing the dynamic current behavior of a plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) vehicle using a load cycle with a maximum current of 8 C, validated using potential and temperature data. The model fits the data well, with small deviations at the most demanding parts of the cycle. The maximum temperature increase and temperature difference of the jellyroll is found to be 9.7°C and 3.6°C, respectively. The electrolyte is found to limit the performance during the high-current pulses, as the concentration reaches extreme values, leading to a very uneven current distribution. Two other thermal management strategies, short side and long side surfaces cooling, are evaluated but are found to have only minor effects on the temperature of the jellyroll, with maximum jellyroll temperatures increases of 9.4°C and 8.1°C, respectively, and maximum temperature differences of 3.7°C and 5.0°C, respectively.

Battery Life Estimation in PHEV Applications: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study

With the onset of the electrification of vehicles, battery life estimation has become a very important issue in the design and commercialization of vehicle electrification technologies. Designing and implementing algorithms to adequately predict battery life is essential for the wide-scale adoption of hybrid vehicles, i.e. both charge-sustaining electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) and pure electric vehicles (EVs). In order to effectively design methods for predicting battery life, accurate and efficient modeling and simulation tools are required to support in the design, identification, and modeling of such methodologies and algorithms. In this paper, we will present a modeling and simulation tool that is intended to be used for battery life estimation in PHEV applications. The dynamic PHEV model is based on many years of development at The Ohio State University's Center for Automotive Research in Columbus OH. The focus of the paper is not so much on each individual vehicle component of the model, but on the design and implementation of the software model. In addition, we will present the design and implementation of parallelized Monte Carlo simulations completed on The Ohio Supercomputer Center using the software model. At the end of the paper, we will present some example results and metrics obtained from the simulation infrastructure that can be used for battery life estimation.

A Three-Phase High Frequency Semi-Controlled Battery Charging Power Converter for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles

This paper presents a novel analysis, design, and implementation of a battery charging three-phase high frequency semi-controlled power converter feasible for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The main advantages of the proposed topology include high efficiency; due to lower power losses and reduced number of switching elements, high output power density realization, and reduced passive component ratings proportionally to the frequency. Additional advantages also include grid economic utilization by insuring unity power factor operation under different possible conditions and robustness since short-circuit through a leg is not possible. A high but acceptable total harmonic distortion of the generator currents is introduced in the proposed topology which can be viewed as a minor disadvantage when compared to traditional boost rectifiers. A hysteresis control algorithm is proposed to achieve lower current harmonic distortion for the rectifier operation. The rectifier topology concept, the principle of operation, and control scheme are presented. Additionally, a dc-dc converter is also employed in the rectifier-battery connection. Test results on 50-kHz power converter system are presented and discussed to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed topology for PHEV applications.

Advanced hydrogen storage alloys for Ni/MH rechargeable batteries

Hydrogen storage alloys are of particular interest as a novel group in functional materials owing to their potential and practical applications in Ni/MH rechargeable batteries. This review is devoted to the specific alloy families developed for high-energy and high-power Ni/MH batteries in the last decades, especially for EV, HEV and PHEV applications. The scope of the work encompasses principles of Ni/MH batteries, electrochemical hydrogen storage thermodynamics and kinetics, prerequisites for hydrogen storage electrode alloys and recent advances in hydrogen storage electrode alloys. Rare earth AB5-type alloys, Ti- and Zr-based AB2-type alloys, Mg-based amorphous/nanocrystalline alloys, rare earth-Mg–Ni-based alloys and Ti–V-based alloys are highlighted. Additionally, the challenges met in developing advanced hydrogen storage alloys for Ni/MH rechargeable batteries are pointed out and some research directions are suggested.

Modeling and Simulation of Direct Torque Controlled PMSM for PHEV

Direct torque control (DTC) method for permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) used as Integrated Starter/Generator (ISG) in PHEV was analyzed. The DTC PMSM model, with PI produced a voltage space vector based on torque PI regulator and flux linkage PI regulator, was built up based on Matlab /Simulink and all simulation blocks were discussed. The results showed that this scheme was simple and effective, also had a good robustness. It is easy to realize in PHEV application, while to keep the fast torque response and little flux linkage and torque fluctuation.

(Technology Award of the Battery Division) Advanced High Power and High Energy Systems for HEV and PHEV Applications

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Degradation of Lithium-Ion Cells Using LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 Positive Electrode for BEV and PHEV Applications

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Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O2-based Electrodes for PHEV Applications: An Optimization

Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O2 cathodes of approximately the same loading of active material with different amounts of inactive materials were fabricated and calendared to different porosity. EV and HPPC tests revealed that Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O2 cathode performance is a strong function of inactive material amount and porosity with respect to energy density, pulse power, and cycling capability. Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O2 laminates containing 2% PVdF and 1.6% acetylene black at 30% porosity exhibits the best overall electrochemical properties including energy density, pulse power, and cycleability. Combined with an MCMB anode, the full cell delivers an energy density of 520 Wh/L which well exceeds the 40-mile energy-density goal announced by FreedomCar of 207 Wh/L. The result illustrates that proper engineering of the cell, module, and pack design may meet the PHEV 40-mile goal.

Advanced High Power and High Energy Systems for HEV and PHEV applications - Invited Talk

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Development of Safe and High Power Batteries for HEVs

Safety is one of the most important concerns for lithium-ion batteries due to the high energy density of the cells. In battery packs for HEV, PHEV, or EV applications, there exist dozens of lithium-ion cells that are connected in series and/or parallel to create a pack with high voltage and that is capable of discharging and charging with high currents. Managing such a battery pack therefore requires increased safety management compared to a cellphone or laptop battery. Not only is the management of the safety important during usage of the pack but also during assembly and maintenance. The high voltage conditions (>100V) that exist in HEV battery packs can pose potential hazards for workers and auto mechanics. The need for increased safety controls increases with higher voltage systems. Therefore, improving the safety of the lithium-ion battery via the cell chemistry can lead to a reduction of cost for the HEV, PHEV, and EV battery by eliminating the need for costly battery management and cooling systems.In order to improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries for use in HEV, PHEV, and EV applications, EnerDel has investigated various battery active materials using 2Ah sized prototype cells. These cells were tested according to the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) test FreedomCAR manual. The tests included power capability, cycle life, calendar life, and cold cranking tests. In addition to the tests in the FreedomCAR test manual, some abuse tests such as overcharge and nail penetration were also carried out.

Thermal Response and Flammability of Li-Ion Cells for HEV and PHEV Applications

Thermal Response and Flammability of Li-Ion Cells for HEV and PHEV Applications