Menstruation Phase Research Articles

Menstruation Cycle: Does it affect the Volley Ball Athletes’ Physical Condition and Performance?

The objectives of the present study are to know how far the decrease in the performance and physical condition of the volley ball athletes’ in their menstruation cycle. An ex post facto causal comparative research method and 12 volley ball athletes as samples were employed. The findings of the research show that the decline rate in the athletes’ physical condition in the pre-menstruation phase is 39,1%, in the menstruation phase is 47,1%, and post-menstruation phase is 27,9%. In addition, the decline in the athletes’ performance in the pre-menstruation phase is 35,4%, in the menstruation phase is 46,6%, and post-menstruation phase is 29,5%. From the findings, it can be concluded that the menstruation phases affect the volley ball athletes’ physical condition and performance.

Decreased expression of fatty acid amide hydrolase in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between endocannabinoids and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and the expression levels of endocannabinoids in different phases of menstruation. The expression of cannabinoid receptors (CB1) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) in the endometrium were immunohistochemically stained and compared between women with PCOS and the control group. Integrated optical density (IOD) was assessed to analyze their expression levels. The CB1 and FAAH were expressed in endometrial epithelial cytoplasm. No significant difference in CB1 level was observed between PCOS and non-PCOS women. Additionally, the expression of CB1 did not fluctuate with menstrual cycle. However, the FAAH levels were lower in the PCOS group than the non-PCOS group (p < 0.05). FAAH levels in secretory phases were significantly elevated compared to menstrual and proliferative phases (p < 0.05). Our results demonstrate that the endocannabinoid system may play an important role in menstruation, and dysregulation of the system may result in PCOS.

Evaluation of hs-CRP and visseral adiposity index in patients with policystic ovary syndrome by clinical and laboratory findings

AimIn this study, we aimed to evaluate two cardiovascular risk markers, hs-CRP and visseral adiposity index, in patients with policystic ovary syndrome in association with clinical and laboratory findings. Material and methodStudy group included 75 patients who were diagnosed as PCOS according to the criteria of AE-PCOS 2006 and control group included 75 non-PCOS patients who were subsequently admitted to outpatient clinic for smear control, with urinary or vaginal symptoms. Physical and sonographic examinations were made to all subjects. Mean arterial pressure, waist/hip ratio and body mass index were calculated. Fasting blood glucose and insulin, HbA1c, lipids, high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), estradiol, follicle stimulating hormon, luteinising hormone, tiroid stimulating hormone, prolaktin, total testosteron and sex hormone binding globulin were tested in venous blood samples collected from cases following overnight fast in follicular phase of spontaneous or induced menstruation. Visceral adiposity index was also calculated. FindingsNo statistically significant difference was found between PCOS group and control group concerning hs-CRP and VAI (p>0.05). When patients in PCOS group were further grouped as obese and non-obese, hs-CRP and VAI values in obese group were significantly higher than those in non-obese group (p<0.001). However, when control group were further grouped as obese and non-obese, there was no significant difference in terms of hs-CRP between groups (p>0.05), VAI values were significantly higher in obese control group (p<0.05). ConclusionAccording to the results of our study, hs-CRP stands for a better and more specific marker than VAI to determine metabolic components and predictive risks for cardiovascular diseases in patients with PCOS. Further studies with larger populations are needed in order to determine cardiovascular risks particularly in young PCOS patients.

Peak expiratory flow rate and Pulse Pressure values during the Luteal and Menstruation Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

This study assessed the peak expiratory flow rate and pulse pressure during the luteal and menstruation phases of the menstrual cycle. The peak expiratory flow rate and pulse pressure were measured using the Wright’s Peak Flow Meter and Mercury Sphygmomanometer respectively. The peak expiratory flow rate and pulse pressure in the luteal phase were 420.80±12.27 and 42.72±2.52 respectively. While the peak expiratory flow rate and pulse pressure in the menstruation phase were 378.40±11.85 and 35.36±1.95 respectively. The peak expiratory flow rate and the pulse pressure in the luteal phase were significantly higher (p<0.05) than the values during menstruation. The finding may be as a result of the relative increase in progesterone and estrogen levels in the luteal phase. The study thus shows an improved respiratory function and vasodilation during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Keywords: Menstruation, Luteal, Menstrual cycle ,Pulse Presuure, PEFR

Exploring Genitoanal Injury and HIV Risk Among Women: Menstrual Phase, Hormonal Birth Control, and Injury Frequency and Prevalence.

Genital, anal, and oral injuries sustained from sexual intercourse may explain HIV transmission among women. We determined the variability in genitoanal injury frequency and prevalence in women after consensual sexual intercourse, exploring the role of menstrual phase and hormonal birth control. We used a longitudinal observational design with a convenience sample of 393 women aged 21 years and older. Participants had a baseline interview with gynecological examination, followed by consensual sexual intercourse with a male partner and a second gynecological examination. We analyzed injury prevalence with logistic regression and injury frequency with negative binomial regression among women who were (1) menstrual, not using hormonal birth control, (2) menstrual, using hormonal birth control, or (3) menopausal. We also compared injury among menstrual women in the follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases. Women using hormonal birth control had 38% more external genitalia injuries [adjusted rate ratio (ARR) = 1.38, P = 0.030] and more than twice the anal injuries (ARR = 2.67, P = 0.005) as the nonhormonal birth control menstruating group. Menopausal women had more than 3 times the anal injuries (ARR = 3.36, P = 0.020) than those in the nonhormonal menstrual group. Among menstrual women, those in the follicular phase had a greater prevalence and frequency of external genitalia injuries than those in other phases. Increased rates of postcoital genitoanal injuries are noted among women using hormonal birth control and/or in the follicular phase of menstruation. Biological factors that influence women's risk for HIV warrant further investigation.

Assessment of stress and autonomic nervous activity in Japanese female ambulance paramedics working 24-hour shifts.

We studied the physical and mental conditions of 8 healthy young female ambulance paramedics working 24-hour shifts during their menstrual cycle, including assessment of cardiac autonomic nervous system activity by heart rate variability power spectral analysis. The autonomic activity during the awake period of on- and off-duty days in the follicular, late luteal, and menstruation phases was measured. Questionnaires regarding fatigue and menstrual distress were administered and correlated with the autonomic profile. While degrees of fatigue significantly increased after work, the changes in autonomic activity during the awake period on on-duty days were not significantly different from those on off-duty days (LF/HF, p=0.123; HF/(HF+LF), p=0.153). As for the sleeping period, there were no significant differences. Although the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) revealed the presence of mild menstrual discomfort in the late luteal and menstruation phases, no significant difference was observed in the autonomic profile of the three menstrual cycle phases. No significant correlation was observed between the degree of menstrual distress and autonomic profile, though there was a significant correlation in the late luteal phase between degree of menstrual distress and fatigue after work (p<0.01). These results showed that, while subjects experienced menstrual discomfort and fatigue after work, their autonomic profile did not alter in the menstrual cycle. It is suggested that healthy young female ambulance paramedics may tolerate 24-hour shifts, though attention should be paid to subjective menstrual symptoms and fatigue.

What we know about primary dysmenorrhea today: a critical review.

Primary dysmenorrhea, or painful menstruation in the absence of pelvic pathology, is a common, and often debilitating, gynecological condition that affects between 45 and 95% of menstruating women. Despite the high prevalence, dysmenorrhea is often poorly treated, and even disregarded, by health professionals, pain researchers, and the women themselves, who may accept it as a normal part of the menstrual cycle. This review reports on current knowledge, particularly with regards to the impact and consequences of recurrent menstrual pain on pain sensitivity, mood, quality of life and sleep in women with primary dysmenorrhea. Comprehensive literature searches on primary dysmenorrhea were performed using the electronic databases PubMed, Google Scholar and the Cochrane Library. Full-text manuscripts published between the years 1944 and 2015 were reviewed for relevancy and reference lists were cross-checked for additional relevant studies. In combination with the word 'dysmenorrhea' one or more of the following search terms were used to obtain articles published in peer-reviewed journals only: pain, risk factors, etiology, experimental pain, clinical pain, adenomyosis, chronic pain, women, menstrual cycle, hyperalgesia, pain threshold, pain tolerance, pain sensitivity, pain reactivity, pain perception, central sensitization, quality of life, sleep, treatment, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Women with dysmenorrhea, compared with women without dysmenorrhea, have greater sensitivity to experimental pain both within and outside areas of referred menstrual pain. Importantly, the enhanced pain sensitivity is evident even in phases of the menstrual cycle when women are not experiencing menstrual pain, illustrating that long-term differences in pain perception extend outside of the painful menstruation phase. This enhanced pain sensitivity may increase susceptibility to other chronic pain conditions in later life; dysmenorrhea is a risk factor for fibromyalgia. Further, dysmenorrheic pain has an immediate negative impact on quality of life, for up to a few days every month. Women with primary dysmenorrhea have a significantly reduced quality of life, poorer mood and poorer sleep quality during menstruation compared with their pain-free follicular phase, and compared with the menstruation phase of pain-free control women. The prescribed first-line therapy for menstrual pain remains non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, which are effective in relieving daytime and night-time pain. Further study is needed to determine whether effectively blocking dysmenorrheic pain ameliorates risk for the development of chronic pain disorders and to explore whether it is possible to prevent the development-and not just treat-severe dysmenorrheic pain in adolescent girls. In conclusion, we demonstrate the extensive multi-factorial impact of dysmenorrhea and we encourage and direct researchers to necessary future studies.

Study of Audiovisual Reaction Time in Different Phases of Menstrual Cycle

Reaction time is an indirect index of processing capabilities of the central nervous system. The present study was carried out to determine if there is any influence of different phases of menstrual cycle on simple reaction time in healthy young females. In this study, 50 young healthy female participants were presented with two visual stimuli viz. red and green light stimuli and two auditory stimuli viz. tone and click sound stimuli. Their reaction time to auditory as well as visual stimuli was recorded. Results were expressed as mean and standard deviation and data was analyzed using paired't’ test, ‘z’ test and software statistical package social science (spss version 18) was used. There was no significant difference observed when the reaction time was compared between three phases of menstrual cycle i.e. proliferative, secretory and menstrual phase for visual stimuli and auditory stimuli. There is no influence of the different phases of menstruation on the visual and auditory reaction time and hence menstrual cycle of a female need not be scrutinised for those working in professions requiring faster reaction times.

Cyclic fluctuation of bleeding time and clotting time in various phases of menstrual cycle

Background: The physiologic mechanisms whereby the human endometrium maintains hemostasis during endovascular trophoblast invasion, yet permits menstrual hemorrhage, are unknown. Aims and Objective: To find out whether hemostatic responses alter during various phases of normal menstruation. Materials and Methods: In this study height, weight, body mass index, pulse, and blood pressure were measured in 60 female volunteers having normal, regular menstrual cycle. Bleeding and clotting time were measured during three phases of single menstrual cycle: menstrual, follicular, and luteal. One-way analysis of variance test with Bonferroni correction was used to find out statistical significance. Results: This study shows mean bleeding time at follicular phase was significantly (P 0.05). Conclusion: Our observations indicate that primary and secondary hemostatic mechanism activities are at their high in the follicular phase than in the luteal and menstrual phases.

The role of menstrual cycle phase and AMH levels in breast cancer patients whose ovarian tissue was cryopreserved for oncofertility treatment.

PurposeTo determine the factors that affect oocyte extraction efficiency when using the “combined procedure”. In the present “combined procedure” ovarian tissue cryopreservation and oocyte extraction from an isolated ovary, later used in In Vitro Maturation (IVM), are performed concurrently.MethodsData were analyzed retrospectively and obtained from the clinical records of 27 young breast cancer patients referred for fertility preservation.ResultsThe patients’ mean age was 33.7 (±3.8) years, mean serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration was 3.5 (±2.1) ng/ml, and mean number of extracted oocytes was 8.3 (±6.1). The phase of menstruation (follicular or luteal) did not affect either the number of oocytes extracted (P = 0.99) nor oocyte survival or maturation rates. Likewise, the number of oocytes that could be extracted was not affected by the type of laparoscopic procedure (multiple-port or single-incision laparoscopy; P = 0.94) or the molecular subtype of breast cancer (either Luminal A or B; P = 0.52). Analysis revealed that the number of extracted oocytes was well-correlated with the patient’s AMH serum level and age (coefficient of correlation: 0.60 and −0.48, respectively).ConclusionWe conclude that the outcome of the “combined procedure” primarily depends upon the patient’s serum AMH level and age. Importantly, the “combined procedure” may be used during any phase of the menstrual cycle to preserve the fertility of breast cancer patients.

Women with dysmenorrhoea are hypersensitive to experimentally induced forearm ischaemia during painful menstruation and during the pain-free follicular phase.

Monthly primary dysmenorrhoeic pain is associated with increased sensitivity to painful stimuli, particularly in deep tissue. We investigated whether women with dysmenorrhoea, compared with controls, have increased sensitivity to experimentally induced deep-tissue muscle ischaemia in a body area distant from that of referred menstrual pain. The sub-maximal effort tourniquet test was used to induce forearm ischaemia in 11 women with severe dysmenorrhoea and in nine control women both during menstruation and in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Von Frey hair assessments confirmed the presence of experimental ischaemia. Women rated the intensity of menstrual and ischaemic pain on a 100-mm visual analogue scale. Women with dysmenorrhoea [mean (SD): 68 (20) mm] reported significantly greater menstrual pain compared with controls [mean (SD): 2 (6) mm; p = 0.0001] during the menstruation phase. They also rated their forearm ischaemic pain as significantly greater than the controls during the menstruation [dysmenorrhoeics vs. controls mean (SD): 58 (19) mm vs. 31 (21) mm, p < 0.01] and follicular [dysmenorrhoeics vs. controls mean (SD): 60 (18) mm vs. 40 (14) mm, p < 0.01] phases of the menstrual cycle. These data show that compared with controls, women who experience severe recurrent dysmenorrhoea have deep-tissue hyperalgesia to ischaemic pain in muscles outside of the referred area of menstrual pain both during the painful menstruation phase and pain-free follicular phase. These findings suggest the presence of long-lasting changes in muscle pain sensitivity in women with dysmenorrhoea. Our findings that dysmenorrhoeic women are hyperalgesic to a clinically relevant, deep-muscle ischaemic pain in areas outside of referred menstrual pain confirm other studies showing long-lasting changes in pain sensitivity outside of the painful period during menstruation.

Laparoscopic Evaluation of the Tuboperitoneal Factors in Infertility

Objective: The aim of the study is to describe the tuboperitoneal findings in selected infertile patients by laparoscopy. Methods and Materials: This cross-sectional study was carried out at the infertility center in BIRDEM during the period of September 2002 to February 2003. A total of 50 patients were selected for laparoscopy and dye test. Those patients who had medical disorder and contraindications for laparoscopy were excluded from the study. Patients with infertility due to male factors were also excluded from this study. Laparoscopy was scheduled in secretory phase of menstruation. Results: Among the study population, 35 (70%) patients were primary infertile group while 15 (30%) patients were secondary infertile group. According to age distribution, 20 (57%) patients of primary infertility and 8 (53%) patients of secondary infertility belonged to age group 25-30 years. Duration of infertility was between 2 yrs to 5 yrs in 45% of patient where 30% cases had been infertile for 5 yrs to 10 yrs. Laparoscopy revealed normal findings in 14 (28%) patients and ovarian cause like chocolate cyst and polycystic ovary in 21 (42%). Peritoneal pathology like adhesion or endometriosis was detected in 19 (38%) cases. Bilateral tubal occlusion was found in 4 (8%) cases and unilateral tubal occlusion in 7 (14%) cases. Conclusion: Laparoscopy is a necessary diagnostic tool for evaluation of tubo-peritoneal pathology in infertile women. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/birdem.v4i1.18546 Birdem Med J 2014; 4(1): 9-12

PW033 Management of Cardiovascular Emergencies in the Dental Office

O ST E R A B ST R A C T S Objectives: Study population: among 850 consecutive patients with suspected VVS we observed a cohort of 500 women at age 13-79 yrs (median of age 37,5), referred to HUTT according to the ESC 2009 guidelines, was recruited. Methods: Phase of menses period was described as phase II if covered last 14 days of menstruation cycle or phase I – when covered the period before phase II. According to results of HUTT the type of VVS, the duration of total HUTT and both passive and active phase were evaluated in relation to presence of menstruation and the phase of menses period. Results: mong all studied women 315 pts were still menstruated (median of age 25 yrs; IQR 16-57): 170 (34.0%) in follicular, and 145 (29.0%) in luteal phase of the menstrual cycle whereas 185 (37.0%) underwent menopause (median of age 65 yrs; IQR 42-82); Mean age of first syncope was significantly lower in menstruated female in relation to those after menopause (median of age: 30 [IQR 14-56] vs 15 [IQR 10-21] yrs, p 37,5 ys) Conclusion: 1. Higher incidence of vasodepressive reaction in postmenopausal women in comparison to premenopausal women was noticed. Differences of type of vasovagal response during HUTT seems to be more relative to the age of women than the presence of menstruation. 2. Age of first syncope presentation was significantly lower in menstruating women in relation to females after menopause – it may suggest different patomechanism of vasovagal syncope in these group of women (classical VVS or vasovagal disease).

Evaluation the Effects of VitB6 on the Treatment of Premenstrual Syndrome: A Clinical Randomized Trial

Introduction: Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a regularly appearance number of symptoms during luteal phase of menstruation. The purpose of this study was, determination the effect of Vit B6 on treatment this syndrome. Method: Two hundred girls who had moderate and severe form of premenstrual syndrome, selected randomly and divided in two groups. First group received 40 mg Vit B6 daily for three months and, and second group received daily one tablet of placebo for three months. Also they filled Rosignol Bonlender check list during use of drug. Data analyzed by SPSS version 19 and severity of symptoms compare before & after intervention in each group, and after treatment in two groups. Result: Severity of physical, mental, physical and mental symptoms in patients who receive Vit B6 and placebo had reduced (p< 0.05). Conclusion: Vit B6 is effective on PMS.

English

Context: The menstrual cycle is a natural monthly event in young women, coordinated by the hypothalamic-pituitary ovarian axis and may influence physiological and pathological changes that occur throughout the life time of the woman. There is a cyclical change in sex hormones during the course of menstrual cycle that have the potential effects on exercise capacity and performance through numerous mechanisms, such as substrate metabolism, cardiorespiratory function, thermoregulation, psychological factors and injuries. Consequently hormone level changes may theoretically lead to either improved or decreased performance at various times throughout the menstrual cycle. Physiological indices such as heart rate, tension, VO 2max and aerobic power are of the main indicators of exercise performance, a potential change in these indices over the menstrual cycle will have large practical implications for female athletes. VO 2 max is highly predictive of endurance performance, hence the present study was done to evaluate whether there is any changes in the VO 2 max during phases of menstruation in young female athletes. Aim: The present study was done to evaluate the VO 2 max during phases of menstruation in young female athletes. Settings and Design: The present study was a cross sectional study consisting of 30 healthy female athletes of 17-20 years of age. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in the Department of Physiology, Adichunchanagiri institute of medical sciences after the institutional ethical clearance and written consent from each participant. VO 2 max (maximum oxygen uptake) was indirectly assessed by the Astrand nomogram method from submaximal exercise data obtained using Harvard step test during all the three phases of menstrual cycle. Results: The parameters were analyzed for statistical significance using Students't' test and p<0.05 was considered the level of significance. There were no significant changes in the VO 2 max during all the phases of menstrual

Menstrual pain is associated with rapid structural alterations in the brain

Dysmenorrhea is the most prevalent gynecological disorder in women of child-bearing age. Dysmenorrhea is associated with central sensitization and functional and structural changes in the brain. Our recent brain morphometry study disclosed that dysmenorrhea is associated with trait-related abnormal gray matter (GM) changes, even in the absence of menstrual pain, indicating that the adolescent brain is vulnerable to menstrual pain. Here we report rapid state-related brain morphological changes, ie, between pain and pain-free states, in dysmenorrhea. We used T1-weighted anatomic magnetic resonance imaging to investigate regional GM volume changes between menstruation and periovulatory phases in 32 dysmenorrhea subjects and 32 age- and menstrual cycle-matched asymptomatic controls. An optimized voxel-based morphometry analysis was conducted to disclose the possible state-related regional GM volume changes across different menstrual phases. A correlation analysis was also conducted between GM differences and the current menstrual pain experience in the dysmenorrhea group. Compared with the periovulatory phase, the dysmenorrhea subjects revealed greater hypertrophic GM changes than controls during the menstruation phase in regions involved in pain modulation, generation of the affective experience, and regulation of endocrine function, whereas atrophic GM changes were found in regions associated with pain transmission. Volume changes in regions involved in the regulation of endocrine function and pain transmission correlated with the menstrual pain experience scores. Our results demonstrated that short-lasting cyclic menstrual pain is associated not only with trait-related but also rapid state-related structural alterations in the brain. Considering the high prevalence rate of menstrual pain, these findings mandate a great demand to revisit dysmenorrhea with regard to its impact on the brain and other clinical pain conditions.

THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT PHASES OF NORMAL MENSTRUAL CYCLE ON SIMPLE VISUAL REACTION TIME

The measure of reaction time has been used to evaluate the processing speed of CNS and the coordination between sensory and motor system. Estrogen and progesterone can alter neuronal functioning. This study was taken up to determine any alterations in simple reaction time during different phases of normal menstruation. In our study we included 100 female first year medical and dental students with normal menstruation history. The subject’s visual reaction time was measured in all the phases of menstruation. The results were expressed as mean and standard deviation. Student’s paired‘t’ test was used for statistical analysis. Each phase was compared with corresponding adjacent phases and the simple visual reaction time was found to be significantly increased (P<0.05) in all phases of menstrual cycle except on the days of menstruation. Hence the altered levels of hormones during menstrual cycle affect the coordination between sensory and motor system.

Effects of Sex Steroids on Serum Sclerostin Levels during the Menstrual Cycle

Background/Aims: Previous studies on the effects of estrogen on sclerostin regulation were conducted in postmenopausal women in humans or animals following estrogen treatment or induced estrogen deficiency. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of sex hormones on serum sclerostin levels in premenopausal women with normal menstrual cycles. Methods: A prospective observational clinical study. 80 voluntary premenopausal women were recruited for the study. Data from 31 patients were available for the statistical analysis. Serum sclerostin, free estradiol, free testosterone, and progesterone levels were measured during the menstruation, late follicular and mid-luteal phases. The unique protocol IDs were BEAH FTR-4 and NCT01418924 at ClinicalTrials.gov ID. Results: Serum sclerostin values were 1.03 ± 0.58 ng/ml during the menstruation phase, 1.0 ± 0.36 ng/ml during the late follicular phase, and 1.18 ± 0.67 ng/ml during the mid-luteal phase (p = 0.543). There was no significant relationship between serum levels of sex steroids and sclerostin. Conclusions: Previous studies have not investigated the impact of sex hormone fluctuations on serum sclerostin levels during the menstrual cycle. The present study shows that serum sclerostin levels were not affected by sex steroids in premenopausal women with normal menstrual cycles.

Altered Cytokine Gene Expression in Peripheral Blood Monocytes across the Menstrual Cycle in Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Case-Control Study

Primary dysmenorrhea is one of the most common gynecological complaints in young women, but potential peripheral immunologic features underlying this condition remain undefined. In this paper, we compared 84 common cytokine gene expression profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from six primary dysmenorrheic young women and three unaffected controls on the seventh day before (secretory phase), and the first (menstrual phase) and the fifth (regenerative phase) days of menstruation, using a real-time PCR array assay combined with pattern recognition and gene function annotation methods. Comparisons between dysmenorrhea and normal control groups identified 11 (nine increased and two decreased), 14 (five increased and nine decreased), and 15 (seven increased and eight decreased) genes with ≥2-fold difference in expression (P<0.05) in the three phases of menstruation, respectively. In the menstrual phase, genes encoding pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1B, TNF, IL6, and IL8) were up-regulated, and genes encoding TGF-β superfamily members (BMP4, BMP6, GDF5, GDF11, LEFTY2, NODAL, and MSTN) were down-regulated. Functional annotation revealed an excessive inflammatory response and insufficient TGF-β superfamily member signals with anti-inflammatory consequences, which may directly contribute to menstrual pain. In the secretory and regenerative phases, increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and decreased expression of growth factors were also observed. These factors may be involved in the regulation of decidualization, endometrium breakdown and repair, and indirectly exacerbate primary dysmenorrhea. This first study of cytokine gene expression profiles in PBMCs from young primary dysmenorrheic women demonstrates a shift in the balance between expression patterns of pro-inflammatory cytokines and TGF-β superfamily members across the whole menstrual cycle, underlying the peripheral immunologic features of primary dysmenorrhea.

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle on Nasal Resonance Characteristics in Females

The purpose of this study was to analyze resonance characteristics (nasality and nasalance values) during the menstrual cycle. Previous studies indicate changes in voice quality and nasal mucosa due to temporary falling estrogen levels in human females during their menstrual cycle. The present study compared the nasality and “nasalance scores” obtained on 15 healthy participants. The first assessment was done during the first 3 days of the menses and a second assessment was done during postmenstrual ovulation phases using Nasometer II software, and a perceptual nasal resonance assessment was done using Buffalo III Voice Profile. The results revealed significant increases in the nasalance values during the menstruation phase. The findings indicate that hormonal and other related changes occurring during menstruation leads to a significant change in the resonance characteristics of voice.