Wave Phase Research Articles

The Group and Phase Velocity of the Ordinary Wawe in the Ionosphere A Complete Solution and Numerical Analysis

The ionosphere is a conductive and natural plasma layer of the atmosphere that starts from 50 km above the ground and continues up to approximately 1000 km. To neglect the magnetic field effect on the ionosphere, both vertical and horizontal ionosondes are used to detect the electron density of the ionosphere in many parts of the Earth. In this study, in ionosphere plasma; Without any approximation, the phase and group velocities of the ordinari wave, which is independent of the magnetic field in the collisional ionosphere plasma (electron-ion; electron-neutral), were obtained analyt-ically and its seasonal behavior was calculated numerically. According to the results obtained; There is a strong similarity between the change trends in the phase and group velocities of the ordinari wave at local times of 05:00 in the morning and 20:00 in the evening. It can be said that in these time intervals in the E and F regions of the ionosphere, the wave energy is constant and the directions of the phase and group velocities are in the same direction but in opposite directions.

Measurement of phase velocity in the functionally graded concrete systems via improved higher-order shear deformation theory

The measurement of phase velocity (PV) in concrete systems is critically important for civil engineers as it provides essential insights into the material properties and structural integrity of concrete. PV, which refers to the speed at which a wave phase propagates through a medium, is directly related to the stiffness and density of the material. By accurately measuring PV, civil engineers can assess the quality and homogeneity of concrete, detect potential flaws, and predict the material’s behavior under various load conditions. This information is crucial for ensuring the safety and durability of concrete structures, from bridges and buildings to pavements and dams. Moreover, understanding PV helps in the optimization of mix designs and the development of new, advanced concrete materials, ultimately leading to more resilient and cost-effective construction practices. For this issue, in this work, for the first time, the measurement of PV in the concrete doubly curved panel reinforced by graphene oxide powders (GOPs) via improved higher-order shear deformation theory is presented. Hamilton’s principle and analytical method are used for extracting and solving the higher-order equations. Finally, some recommendations for improving the efficiency and stability of the concrete structures are presented for related engineering industries. The findings underscore the potential of combining state-of-the-art theoretical models with cutting-edge material reinforcements to push the boundaries of structural engineering and material performance.

A guided wave propagation method for delamination detection in fiber-metal laminates

This study aimed to assess the delamination detection in FMLs via the finite element (FE) simulations of Lamb wave propagation. An FE model of an FML specimen with [Al/902/Al/902/Al] layup was developed. Delamination damage of 10 and 25 mm diameters was induced between different layers of the FML specimen. The fundamental antisymmetric Lamb wave mode (A0) at 60 kHz and the fundamental symmetric Lamb wave mode (S0) at the frequency of 206 kHz were propagated on the developed FE models. The Lamb wave phase velocity was obtained from the FE models and compared with those obtained from the Lamb wave propagation tests. The sensitivity of the A0 and S0 Lamb wave modes to the delamination and its diameter were examined. The inverse Lamb wave propagation problem was then solved, and the elastic modulus of the FML specimen was estimated in the intact and delamination regions. It was observed that the phase velocity of the S0 Lamb wave mode had a higher sensitivity to the delamination damage compared to that of the A0 Lamb wave mode. The phase velocity of the A0 Lamb wave mode was more sensitive to the delamination diameter. The capability of the proposed simulated Lamb wave propagation method as a virtual lab for detecting delamination in the FMLs was confirmed.

Thermo-hydraulic transport characteristics of non-Newtonian nanofluid flow through wavy channel: Influence of nanoparticle volume fraction and Prandtl number

The present study numerically investigates the thermal-hydraulic transport characteristics of non-Newtonian nanofluid flowing through the trapezoidal wavy channel. Constitutive behavior of non-Newtonian fluid was used to elucidate the power law model. The average Nusselt number, pressure drop, and performance factor are evaluated for varying volume concentration of nanoparticles (0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 0.04) and Prandtl number (Pr = 0.76, 1, 6.39, 20, 50, and 100) at different values of Reynold number (Re = 50 and 500), power index values (n = 0.5, 1, 1.5) and wave phase shift (θ = 0°, 90°and 180°). An increase in average Nusselt number and pressure drop was observed for increasing volume concentration of nanoparticles, Prandtl number, and Reynold number. At the same time, the performance factor decreases with an increase in ϕ, Pr, and Re. The heat transfer rate was observed to be more for shear thinning fluids than shear thickening fluids.

A linearized coupled model of acoustic-gravity waves and the lower ionosphere at Mars

Highly variable ionospheric structures were recently detected on Mars using spacecraft measurements. Acoustic-gravity waves (AGWs) could be the underlying mechanism. Studying the response of the Martian ionosphere to AGWs could provide us with an important understanding of the neutral wave--ionospheric coupling processes. We developed a linearized wave model to explore the plasma--neutral coupling driven by AGWs in the lower ionosphere of Mars. This model can describe the propagation and dissipation of AGWs in a realistic atmosphere and is the first of its kind to incorporate plasma behaviors associated with photochemistry and electromagnetic fields. We adopted a full-wave model as the first part of our coupled model to delineate wave propagation in a realistic atmosphere. The second part of our model consists of the governing equations describing the plasma behaviors. Therefore, our model not only replicates the result of the full-wave model, but can also be used to investigate the wave-driven variations in the plasma velocity and density, electromagnetic field, and thermal structures. Our model results reveal that ions are mainly dragged by neutrals and oscillate along the wave phase line below sim 200 km altitude. Electrons are primarily subject to gyro-motion along the magnetic field lines. The wave-driven distinct motions among charged particles can generate the perturbed electric current and electric field, further contributing to localized magnetic field fluctuations. Major charged constituents, including electrons, O$^ $, O$_ $, and CO$_ $, have higher density amplitudes when interacting with waves of larger periods. The presence of photochemistry leads to a decrease in the plasma density amplitude, and there exists a moderate correlation between the density variations of plasma and those of neutrals. Our numerical results indicate that the wave-driven variations range from several percent to sim 80<!PCT!> in the plasma density and from sim 0.2<!PCT!> to 17<!PCT!> in the magnetic field, values that are consistent with the spacecraft observations. Further calculations reveal that the wave-induced plasma--neutral coupling can heat the neutrals yet cool the plasmas. Electrons are cooler than ions in the coupling process. The wave-driven heating by neutral--ion collisions exceeds that by neutral--electron collisions but tends to be lower than the wave dissipative heating and photochemical heating. Our model has potential applications in studying the AGW-driven variable ionospheric structures and can be used for other planets.

Extracting off-diagonal order from diagonal basis measurements

Quantum gas microscopy has developed into a powerful tool to explore strongly correlated quantum systems. However, discerning phases with topological or off-diagonal long range order requires the ability to extract these correlations from site-resolved measurements. Here, we show that a multiscale complexity measure can pinpoint the transition to and from the bond ordered wave phase of the one-dimensional extended Hubbard model with an off-diagonal order parameter, sandwiched between diagonal charge and spin density wave phases, using only diagonal descriptors. We study the model directly in the thermodynamic limit using the recently developed variational uniform matrix product states algorithm, and draw our samples from degenerate ground states related by global spin rotations, emulating the projective measurements that are accessible in experiments. Our results will have important implications for the study of exotic phases using optical lattice experiments. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Investigation on specific heat and Raman spectroscopy of YbFe2As2

We hereby present a comprehensive study of polycrystalline YbFe2As2 which includes detailed investigation on the specific heat capacity and Raman spectroscopy measurements at high magnetic fields (up to 16 T) and low temperatures. Low temperature x-ray diffraction investigations at 30 K on YbFe2As2 reveal an orthorhombic unit cell structure, which indicates structural transitions from monoclinic to orthorhombic as temperature decreases. In specific heat capacity measurements, a slope change is observed around 70 K. It may be a signature of spin density wave (SDW) phase transition. The specific heat data has been fitted in the temperature ranging from 20 to 90 K. It has been found that linear coefficient of specific heat (γ) is quite enhanced suggesting the existence of quasi particles with heavy effective mass. Its value changes slowly with magnetic field below 70 K. Raman spectra have been studied in the temperature range of 4 to 300 K. It is observed that there is a trend of shifting the B1G peak position in Raman spectra on the higher side as the temperature decreases. A change of slope in shift of B1G versus temperature plot is noticed around 70 K suggesting phase transition which is consistent with specific heat and previous resistivity measurements. Overall, our results provide new insights into the physical properties and phase transitions of YbFe2As2.

Encryption Technology of Optical Communication Network Based on Artificial Intelligence Technology

At present, research on enhancing information transmission security by addressing the two key issues of time delay signal elimination and key space expansion in chaotic secure communication systems has become a hot topic. In order to improve the encryption effect of optical communication network, this paper analyzes the encryption technology of optical communication network with AIT (artificial intelligence technology), designs the encryption scheme of optical communication network with the help of AIT, and takes the digital random sequence as the key. Moreover, this paper uses the digital signal processor to control the arbitrary wave generator to generate multi-ary step square wave, modulate the optical feedback and realize the highly random change of external cavity delay, thus eliminating the long external cavity delay information. This article proposes a chaotic secure communication system using digital sequences as keys and external cavity optical feedback, a device for forming a chaotic source through arbitrary wave phase modulation and single loop feedback, and a chaotic secure communication system with single feedback key phase modulation and injection synchronization. At the same time, this paper proposes a system scheme using single-loop optical feedback phase modulation, the CS(chaotic signal) with complex dynamic behavior is output, and the time-delay signal is effectively eliminated. This paper analyzes the strength and phase information of CS by autocorrelation and mutual information technology, and verifies the effect of optical communication network encryption technology. Through the analysis of experimental results, it can be seen that the optical communication network encryption technology based on AIT proposed in this paper can effectively improve the encryption effect of optical communication network. The algorithm model camera proposed in this article can be used in subsequent practice to improve communication encryption performance

An analytical model for Love wave in a coated piezoelectric bar via nonlocal theory due to an impulsive source

The non-locality behavior of new advanced functionally graded (FG) and piezoelectric (PE) nanobar is presented in this study with an impulsive point source using green function derivatives. The primary aim of this study is to explore the impact of different physical parameters on the phase dispersion phenomena against wave number and depth of point source of Love wave propagation. The stress tensor is considered the linear variation of the shear stress distribution in the thickness direction, and the shear stress at the free surface of the piezoelectric bar is zero. Using the Fourier transform and Green’s function technique, the equations of motion and the dispersion relation is derived by applying admissible boundary conditions involving piezoelectricity, dielectricity, functional gradient, and nonlocal elastic parameters of the media. The obtained results are validated with existing results by considering special cases. The variation in the dispersion curves due to the impulsive point source and piezoelectricity, dielectricity, functional gradient, and non-locality parameters have been analyzed and illustrated using graphs along with a comparative study by considering four piezoelectric materials, PZT-4, PZT-5A, PZT-5H, and PZT-2. Furthermore, the relationship between nonlocal parameters in the layer and half-space is investigated to explore the influence of wave number, phase velocity, and depth of point source.

Dispersive behavior of SH waves in a smart composite structure of viscoelastic media

This study focuses on the dispersive behavior of SH waves in a piezoelectric viscoelastic (PV) layer sandwiched between a magnetoelastic fiber-reinforced viscoelastic (MFRV) layer and a heterogeneous viscoelastic half-space. The linear variation of the downward-pointing space variable introduces inhomogeneity in the viscoelastic half-space. With the help of the variable separation technique, the governing equations of the present model are solved to obtain solutions for the mechanical displacement and electric potential function. A complex frequency equation for the SH waves has been derived by applying appropriate boundary conditions. The results are confirmed by comparison to the classical case of Love wave, and special cases of the problem are also discussed. In the fundamental analytical study, two cases of the PV layer are discussed, and the effects of physical parameters on the phase and damped velocity of SH waves are investigated through numerical calculations and presented graphically. A comparative study has also been carried out to analyze the effects of the viscoelastic parameters, reinforcement parameters, thickness ratio parameter, magnetoelastic coupling parameter, inhomogeneity parameter, and the angle at which the wave intersects the magnetic field on the phase and damped velocity by taking electrically open and short conditions.

Global Stratospheric Properties of Gravity Waves From 1 Year of Radio Occultations

AbstractGravity waves (GW) transport momentum flux (MF) and energy across the lower, middle and upper atmosphere. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) radio occultation (RO) is one of the measuring techniques used onboard satellites to provide vertical temperature profiles with global and permanent coverage. These retrievals may be applied in the study of GW. Most of the analysis methods provide absolute GWMF but are missing its net direction. This happens because the procedures can deduce the orientation but not the propagation sign of GW and hence the full direction of MF. We apply here a method that allows the net calculation with four close in space and time RO soundings (quartets). We use about 10,000 daily retrievals from 1 March 2022 to 28 February 2023 to study the seasonal and latitudinal characteristics of net GWMF in the height interval from 20 to 35 km. About 600 quartets were found. The calculated zonal MF and drag exhibited negative minima at middle and high latitudes during winter in the Southern Hemisphere. This well‐known characteristic is usually mainly assigned to orographic sources. A similar intensity in zonal MF and drag is found during the same season at low latitudes. Meridional components are generally less significant. Besides finding the correct sign of the GWMF and the corresponding forcing on the mean flow, the quartets method also allows the determination of the horizontal and vertical wavelengths, the amplitude and sign of the vertical wave phase velocity and the intrinsic frequencies. The global statistics of these parameters are shown and each one exhibits a similar distribution shape across latitude bands. Large differences in the frequency of cases in vertical phase velocity sign appear only at low and high positive latitudes. The most even distribution of GW intrinsic frequency is found at low latitudes. We estimate that absolute MF calculations by methods assuming only upward GW propagation may produce a bias not larger than 40%. The increase of satellite measuring devices achieved in the last years due to the release of new missions led to a high spatial and temporal density of profiles that may allow the attainment of net GWMF climatologies over a seasonal time scale and about 4,000 km latitude bands but this performance may be even improved if the amount of retrievals continues to rise.

Care Bundles to Improve Hemoperfusion Performance in Patients with Severe COVID-19: A Retrospective Study.

Background/Objectives: Hemoperfusion (HP) is employed to modulate cytokine storms in severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients, requiring careful attention for success and safety. Therefore, we investigated whether our care bundles could enhance HP performance. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study on adult patients (≥20 years old) with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. In the first wave (Phase I), we identified HP-related issues and addressed them with care bundles in the second wave (Phase II). The care bundles included early temperature control, precise hemodynamic monitoring, and clot prevention measures for the HP membrane. The HP success rate and associated adverse events (AEs) were assessed between the two phases. Results: The study included 60 HP (HA330) sessions from 27 cases (Phase I: 21 sessions from 9 cases; Phase II: 39 sessions from 18 cases). Patient characteristics and treatments for COVID-19 were similar, except for baseline body temperature (BT) and heart rate (HR). Phase II showed a higher success rate (67% vs. 89%, p = 0.19), although it did not reach statistical significance. Phase I recorded a significantly higher frequency of AEs (3 [IQR 1, 4] events/case vs. 1 [IQR 0, 2] events/case, p = 0.014). After implementing the care bundles, hypothermia significantly decreased (78% vs. 33%, p = 0.037), with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.15; 95% CI 0.02-0.95, p = 0.044 for baseline BT. Conclusions: Further exploration with a larger sample size is required to establish the advantages of care bundles. However, the bundles' implementation has significantly improved hypothermia prevention.

Quasi-monoenergetic electron beam from LWFA: analytical approach

Analytical dependence of the energy spread of electron beam on time and injection duration has been obtained with the 1D model of the quasi-linear laser wakefield electron acceleration, presented as phase portraits of electron energy relative to the plasma wave phase. The method for producing electron beams with variable energy and a lower energy spread compared to a standard bubble-like approach by transferring to a deaccelerating part with another phase trajectory (by reducing the plasma amplitude of a wave) has been developed. The analytically obtained results successfully describe key features of the previously obtained in Tsymbalov et al (2024 arXiv:2403.19828) experimental and numerical (PIC) data.

Research and application of Rayleigh wave imaging based on the Born–Jordan time‐frequency distribution

AbstractCurrently, the horizontal resolution of Rayleigh wave exploration is low. In this study, we propose the Born–Jordan time‐frequency distribution to analyse Rayleigh waves. The seismic signal was filtered with a wavelet transform for denoising, and the Rayleigh wave was separated in the time domain. Using the Born–Jordan time‐frequency distribution, the time waveform of each frequency comprising the Rayleigh wave from every seismic channel was obtained, and the time difference of the Rayleigh wave with the same frequency was calculated, based on which the dispersion curve between the two channels was obtained. Combined with the multichannel Rayleigh wave dispersion curve, phase velocity and frequency imaging under the seismic arrangement were obtained. Applying this method to detect abnormal geological bodies in engineering investigations showed that hard geologic bodies, such as comcrete rocks, have high velocity and frequency, whereas weak ones have low velocity and frequency. This strategy facilitated the detection of fractured zones, underground goafs and obstacles during pipe‐jacking construction near the surface.

The Influence of Topography on the Diurnal Rainfall Propagation in the Bay of Bengal

Abstract A significant diurnal offshore propagation of rainfall is observed extending from the eastern coast of India to the central Bay of Bengal. This study focuses on understanding the influence of topography over the Indian subcontinent on this rainfall propagation through a series of semi-idealized mesoscale numerical simulations. These simulations with varying topography highlight the crucial role of inertia–gravity waves, driven by diurnal mountain–land–sea thermal contrast between India and the Bay of Bengal, in initiating and promoting the offshore propagation of convective systems in the Bay. These waves’ phase speed of around 14.8 m s−1 aligns well with the speed of diurnal rainfall propagation. Even after eliminating the impact of Indian topography, the offshore propagating signal persists, suggesting a secondary rather than dominant effect of terrain on offshore rainfall propagation. Furthermore, the topography affects the depth of diurnal heating within the land’s boundary layer, which thus influences the amplitude, phase, and speed of the inertia–gravity waves. Specifically, the presence of higher mountains along the coastal area drives faster waves by increasing heating depth, resulting in faster rainfall propagation. Significance Statement This study advances our comprehension of the fundamental driver behind diurnal offshore rainfall propagation and the manner in which coastal terrain influences the rainfall pattern. We demonstrate that the diurnal offshore propagation of rainfall is closely related to inertia–gravity waves generated by thermal contrasts, and we successfully distinguish these waves in our study. Furthermore, our findings indicate that elevated coastal topography contributes to a greater heating depth near the coastline, which plays a crucial role in driving faster gravity waves and, consequently, leading to faster rainfall propagation. These outcomes provide a deeper insight into the mechanism governing offshore rainfall propagation and underscore the impact of real-world topography.

Data-driven met-ocean model for offshore wind energy applications

In recent years, the global transition towards green energy, driven by environmental concerns and increasing electricity demands, has remarkably reshaped the energy landscape. The transformative potential of marine wind energy is particularly critical in securing a sustainable energy future. To achieve this objective, it is essential to have an accurate understanding of wind dynamics and their interactions with ocean waves for the proper design and operation of offshore wind turbines (OWTs). The accuracy of met-ocean models depends critically on their ability to correctly capture sea-surface drag over the multiscale ocean surface—a quantity typically not directly resolved in numerical models and challenging to acquire using either field or laboratory measurements. Although skin friction drag contributes considerably to the total wind stress, especially at moderate wind speeds, it is notoriously challenging to predict using physics-based approaches. The current work introduces a novel approach based on a convolutional neural network (CNN) model to predict the spatial distributions of skin friction drag over wind-generated surface waves using wave profiles, local wave slopes, local wave phases, and the scaled wind speed. The CNN model is trained using a set of high-resolution laboratory measurements of air-side velocity fields and their respective surface viscous stresses obtained over a range of wind-wave conditions. The results demonstrate the capability of our model to accurately estimate both the instantaneous and area-aggregate viscous stresses for unseen wind-wave regimes. The proposed CNN-based wall-layer model offers a viable pathway for estimating the local and averaged skin friction drag in met-ocean simulations.

Fundamental role of nonlocal orders in 1D extended Bose-Hubbard model.

Nonlocal order parameters capture the presence of correlated fluctuations between specific degrees of freedom, in otherwise disordered quantum matter. Here, we provide a further example of their fundamental role, deriving the ground state phase diagram of the filling one extended Bose-Hubbard model, exclusively in terms of their ordering. By means of a density matrix renormalization group numerical analysis, we show that in addition to the (even) parity order characteristic of the Mott insulating phase and the string order nonvanishing in the Haldane insulator, the recently proposed odd parity order completes the picture, becoming nonvanishing at the transition from the normal superfluid to the paired superfluid phase. The above three nonlocal parameters capture all the distinct phases, including the density wave phase, in which the local order is seen as the simultaneous presence of correlated fluctuations in different channels. They provide a unique tool for the experimental observation of the full phase diagram of strongly correlated quantum matter, by means of local density measurements.

Lithospheric Evolution of the South‐Central United States Constrained by Joint Inversion of Receiver Functions and Surface Wave Dispersion

AbstractIn the present study, we use broadband seismic data recorded by 190 stations of the EarthScope program's Transportable Array to construct a 3‐D shear wave velocity model for the upper 180 km using a non‐linear Bayesian Monte‐Carlo joint inversion of receiver functions (RFs) and Rayleigh wave dispersion curves. Ambient noise and teleseismic data are used for obtaining Rayleigh wave phase velocity dispersion curves. A resonance removal filtering technique is applied to the RFs contaminated by reverberations from the thick sedimentary layers that cover most of the region. Our observations of the higher crustal shear velocities (∼3.40 km/s) beneath the Sabine Block (SB), along with the estimated relatively thicker crust (∼34.0 km) and lower crustal Vp/Vs estimates (∼1.80) in comparison with the rest of the Gulf Coastal Plain (GCP) (∼3.10 km/s for crustal shear velocities, ∼29.0 km for crustal thickness, and ∼1.90 for crustal Vp/Vs estimates), indicating that this crustal block has different crustal properties from the surrounding coastal plain regions. The southern Ouachita Mountains have a thin crust (∼30.0 km) and low mean crustal Vp/Vs value (∼1.73), suggesting that lower crustal delamination has occurred in this region. Low velocities in the upper mantle beneath most of the GCP are interpreted as a combined result of thin lithosphere, higher‐than‐normal temperatures, and possibly compositional variations.

Modulating charge density wave states in 1T-TaS[formula omitted] by self-intercalation: A DFT study

Complicated charge density wave (CDW) phases transitions in the transition-metal dichalcogenide (TMDs) 1T-TaS2 have attracted wide research interest owing to the accompanied complex electronic structure transition which has not been fully understood. Inspired by a recent experimental work (Zhao et al. (2020), reported the successful preparation of Ta atom self-intercalated 2H-TaS2), we employed first-principles methods to investigate Ta atom self-intercalated 1T-TaS2, exploring effects of self-intercalation on electronic structure, magnetism, and stability ofthe charge density wave (CDW) phase in 1T-TaS2. Our first-principle calculation shows that the intercalation of Ta atom into the van der Waals gap of 1T-TaS2 induce the phase transition from 1T phase to CDW phase, and the positions of intercalated Ta atom determine the distribution of David-star clusters. Accompanied by the structural phase transition, the Ta intercalated 1T-TaS2 also undergoes an electronic structure phase transition from non-magnetic metal to half-metal which is also different from conventional charge density wave’s insulating state. When appropriate holes are doped to the intercalation system, the CDW David-star cluster is gradually destroyed and eventually returns to its original 1T phase. Our studies enrich the phase diagram of TaS2 and highlight the effective manipulation of the CDW states via self-intercalation. This type of materials may have very promising applications in future electronic devices.

Impact of focused wave groups on pier structures: a case study of severe breaking waves at Pont del Petroli during storm Gloria

In January 2020, the footbridge connecting the seaward platform of the Pont del Petroli pier to Badalona beach collapsed due to the severe sea storm named Gloria. Approximately 15 m of the footbridge fell into the sea as a result of prolonged wave action and strong impacts. To understand the complex interaction between waves and structures that led to the pier’s collapse during the storm, a composite modelling approach was developed. The loads on each pier element were initially evaluated using the meshless DualSPHysics code, which employs the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method. This evaluation was conducted under severe wave conditions analogous to those experienced during the storm. Numerical models informed the design of an experimental campaign carried out at the Maritime Engineering Laboratory of Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya—BarcelonaTech, using the CIEM large-scale wave flume facility in Barcelona, Spain. Post-storm bathymetric surveys revealed significant alterations in the seabed profile near the affected infrastructure, including sediment deposition and a reduction in water depth from 10 m to 8 m. Consequently, it was anticipated that wave transformation and breaking in the vicinity of the structure would be substantially affected. To explore this phenomenon, various extreme wave impacts were experimentally simulated using focused wave groups. The physical model findings unveiled the forces that the pier endured during the storm Gloria. The results indicate that wave phases influence individual waves, with waves that are biased and asymmetric experiencing higher peaks than those focused on the crest. This insight helps to explain the structural failure of the footbridge during the storm and underscores the importance of considering wave phase impacts in the design and assessment of coastal infrastructure. The combined numerical and experimental approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the forces at play, contributing valuable knowledge to the field of coastal engineering and infrastructure resilience.