Phase Change Process Research Articles

Self-draining microchannel surface structure for droplet condensation with controlled droplet radius distribution

Surface dewetting is technically important in industrial applications, particularly where phase change processes are involved. We present an intrinsically driven water-permeable microchannel surface system. It has two important advantages: its self-draining capability to remove surface droplets and its ability to limit both the maximum size of droplets condensing on the surface and the thickness of the water film in the microchannel system. This results in a reduction in the overall thermal resistance of the condensate on the cooled surface. We have successfully applied this surface drainage concept to water condensation. An improved condensation efficiency of 5%–9% has been achieved operating the device in an environmental chamber (60% relative humidity, 30 °C chamber temperature, 6 °C cooling temperature) without any optimization of the stable surface structure involved.

Demand response with PCM-based pipe-embedded wall in commercial buildings: Combined passive and active energy storage in envelopes

Demand response (DR) allows Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems to reduce or shift their electricity consumption during peak periods through the global temperature adjustment strategy. Phase change materials (PCM) based walls are the effective energy storage facilities, storing energy in the pre-cooling period and releasing energy during DR event. However, the traditional configuration of PCM-based wall only allows the passive heat transfer between the walls and the indoor air, requiring a long time to complete the phase change process in the pre-cooling period. This paper presents a novel application of PCM-based pipe-embedded wall (PCM-based PE-wall) in building demand response, which combining active and passive heat transfer mechanism to enhance energy storage rates. The effect of PCM-based PE-walls on demand response is evaluated under two different pre-cooling modes: active pre-cooling only (Envelope-2A) and combined passive and active pre-cooling (Envelope-2B). The results show that the implementation of the PCM-based PE-wall can significantly enhance the overall heat transfer rate of the cooling storage in envelopes and thus improving the demand response performance. Compared to traditional PCM walls (Envelope-1), PCM-based PE-walls (Envelope-2B) could cause additional peak demand reductions of 15.78 % and additional energy reductions of 10.18 % during DR events.

Probing the melting dynamics in a phase change Rayleigh–Bénard system under low gravity conditions

The present work aims to investigate dynamic characteristics of Rayleigh–Bénard convection during the solid–liquid phase change process under the influence of variable low-gravity conditions. Low-gravity conditions are crucial to gain physical insights into the complex convection dynamics relevant in terrestrial and space environments that feature diverse gravitational fields. The melting dynamics of a paraffin-based phase change material with Prandtl number Pr ≈ 71 in a square rigid walled enclosure is analyzed by subjecting it to a fixed temperature difference resulting in a Stefan number Ste ≈ 0.33. The enthalpy porosity method is employed to simulate the solid-liquid phase change process in Rayleigh number range 105<Ra <107 to take wide range of gravitational acceleration (0.0g, 0.1g, 0.2g, 0.4g, 0.6g, 0.8g, and g) into account. The simulation results allow detailed insights on the buoyancy-driven convective flow phenomena in a phase-change Rayleigh–Bénard system. Various characteristic flow regimes, the criteria for the onset of convective instabilities, and scaling analysis are presented under varied gravitational acceleration. The findings reveal that the critical Rayleigh number (Racr) for the onset of convection is found to vary between 1351.5 and 1810.5 under the gravity range investigated in contrast to the Racr ≈ 1707.7 for classical Rayleigh-Bénard system under the standard gravity. Furthermore, the scale analysis based on the numerical results shows that the relationship between effective Nusselt number (Nue) and effective Rayleigh number (Rae) follows a power law behavior Nue = 0.27Rae0.25 under each gravity condition, similar to the classical Rayleigh–Bénard system.

Pulsating heat pipe performance enhancement through porous metallic surfaces produced via physical dealloying

Physical dealloying (PD) is explored in this work as a way of creating a porous layer on metallic surfaces to be used for the enhancement of Pulsating Heat Pipe (PHP) thermal performances. PD can be applied to metal alloys consisting of components with a high difference between their partial vapour pressure, such as copper and zinc. Commercially available brass (Cu/Zn alloy) capillary tubes with OD = 2 mm and ID = 1.3 mm were shaped into a four-turn PHP, with a total length of 949 mm. One standard PHP with the same tube diameter, number of turns and total length was tested as benchmark, while other two PHPs were subjected to PD for 0.5 and 2 h, respectively. All PHPs were tested in the range of heat load between 3 and 40 W at a fixed 50 % filling ratio with ethanol as working fluid. The performed tests show that PHPs after PD display up to 30 °C lower average temperature at the evaporator and up to 7 °C lower average temperature of the condenser compared to the benchmark. PD was capable to lower the PHP thermal resistance by up to 4.2 times, from 11.2 to 2.65 K/W, at low heat powers. Furthermore, in the case of PD-treated PHP, the start-up takes place at lower power and temperatures when compared to untreated PHP. This characteristic holds significant value as it expands the range of applications for PHPs, while simultaneously enhancing their reliability, safety, and overall lifespan when used for thermal management in equipment. It is worth noting that this straightforward approach can be tailored for a wide range of thermal management equipment, including conventional, plate, and micro heat exchangers, as well as HVAC systems. This method is particularly suitable for situations where heat transfer takes place through phase change processes.

Experimental investigation of thermal performance in a shell-and-tube phase change thermal energy storage unit with an inner square tube

Experimental investigations of phase change processes in a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal energy storage unit with an inner square tube were carried out. Paraffin OP44E was selected as a phase change material, and the water heated or cooled by constant temperature water tanks flowed into the inner square tube as the heat transfer fluid. Visualization experiments allow for the observation and analysis of the solid-liquid interface during the phase change process. Due to natural convection, the melting interface progresses from top to bottom, while the solidification interface advances from the center outward, as heat transfer is primarily governed by conduction. The experimental results demonstrated that the initial temperature of the PCM has a negligible impact on the thermal performance of the energy storage unit, particularly during the solidification process. The dimensionless analysis reveals the relationships of Nusselt numbers, Stefan numbers, and Reynolds numbers. Furthermore, four stages of conduction, mixed conduction-convection, convective enhancement, and convective attenuation were divided according to the effects of natural convection. Finally, empirical formulas for effectiveness were established to provide guidance for the heat exchanger design.

The study on the coupled influence of water saturation on heat and mass transfer processes within porous media under CW laser irradiation

Continuous wave (CW) laser irradiation induces temperature changes in various phases within porous media, accompanied by phase change and gas transport. Water saturation is a crucial factor influencing this context's moisture and heat transfer process. This paper addresses this issue by establishing a theoretical model for CW laser irradiation on unsaturated porous media. Through experiments and simulations, it studies the effects of different water saturations on heat and mass transfer under laser irradiation. The results indicate that the critical depth reflects the influence of water saturation under laser irradiation on the distribution of solid-phase temperature in both time and space dimensions. Specifically, an increase in water saturation enhances the uniformity of solid-phase temperature distribution, while the gas temperature exhibits a similar distribution pattern. For mass transfer processes, it increases the evaporation rate and Darcy velocity of porous media within the effective range of laser irradiation. Lower water saturation facilitates phase change processes and accelerates gas transport rates. Importantly, this trend remains consistent even with the emergence of dry-saturation zones. Additionally, the decrease in water saturation has a coupled promoting effect on gas temperature and mass transfer processes. Lowering water saturation can increase gas temperature and consequently enhance mass transfer processes. Simultaneously, enhancing mass transfer processes benefits heat exchange between the two phases. In the four sets of experiments, the conformity of the surface temperature rise curves obtained from experiments and simulations is good, indicating that the model can accurately reflect the temperature rise patterns of sand particles. In summary, this work provides valuable research results on the effects of different water saturations on laser irradiation-induced temperature rise, phase change, and gas and moisture transport within porous media. It lays a specific theoretical foundation for laser soil remediation technology.

Explicitly defined empirical constant for phase-change simulation in a two-phase closed thermosyphon

Over several decades, the importance of energy recovery has grown because of the global shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. Among various energy-recovery approaches, waste heat recovery has emerged as a prominent method owing to its ease of adoption in various fields such as power plants and commercial buildings and high amount of recovery by adopting in the heavy industry. A heat exchanger with a heat pipe offers superior waste heat recovery efficiency through its highly effective heat transfer in a two-phase closed thermosyphon (TPCT). Numerous investigations have explored the thermal hydraulic performance of TPCTs in various geometries and operation conditions, mostly relying on experimental methods owing to the challenges in accurately simulating phase change in TPCT systems. These challenges arise from using the mass-transfer intensity factor, r—an empirically selected constant in phase-change models—which lacks a robust basis in fundamental principles. This study introduces a novel approach to selecting the r value for simulating the phase-change process in TPCTs. By employing the volume-of-fluid model for multiphase interfaces along with the widely used Lee model for phase change, the proposed model establishes a correlation between evaporation and condensation mass fluxes to define the r value in condensation heat transfer within a TPCT. The utilisation of the proposed model in simulations yielded improved temperature predictions, deviating by 4–7 K from experimental results while offering a significant reduction in the number of r values to choose from, achieved by explicitly defining the r value for condensation heat transfer. The conventional approach was to set both empirical constants to re = rc = 0.1 s−1. However, this model, which provides a relationship between the two empirical constants based on mass balance, revealed that rc should be 9.8 s−1 rather than 0.1 s−1 corresponding to re = 0.1 s−1. Furthermore, the study examines the diverse thermal performance outcomes associated with varying r values for evaporation in a wide range of re (0.1–100 s−1). rc was in the range of 9.8–12.7 s−1, denoting an increase of only 30% as re increased 1000 times from 0.1 to 100 s−1. This research offers a comprehensive understanding of the computational modelling of TPCTs, providing valuable insights into their thermal characteristics based on the intricate phase-change phenomena occurring within them.

Unexpected increase of the deuterium to hydrogen ratio in the Venus mesosphere

This study analyzes H2O and HDO vertical profiles in the Venus mesosphere using Venus Express/Solar Occultation in the InfraRed data. The findings show increasing H2O and HDO volume mixing ratios with altitude, with the D/H ratio rising significantly from 0.025 at ~70 km to 0.24 at ~108 km. This indicates an increase from 162 to 1,519 times the Earth's ratio within 40 km. The study explores two hypotheses for these results: isotopic fractionation from photolysis of H2O over HDO or from phase change processes. The latter, involving condensation and evaporation of sulfuric acid aerosols, as suggested by previous authors [X. Zhang et al., Nat. Geosci. 3, 834-837 (2010)], aligns more closely with the rapid changes observed. Vertical transport computations for H2O, HDO, and aerosols show water vapor downwelling and aerosols upwelling. We propose a mechanism where aerosols form in the lower mesosphere due to temperatures below the water condensation threshold, leading to deuterium-enriched aerosols. These aerosols ascend, evaporate at higher temperatures, and release more HDO than H2O, which are then transported downward. Moreover, this cycle may explain the SO2 increase in the upper mesosphere observed above 80 km. The study highlights two crucial implications. First, altitude variation is critical to determining the Venus deuterium and hydrogen reservoirs. Second, the altitude-dependent increase of the D/H ratio affects H and D escape rates. The photolysis of H2O and HDO at higher altitudes releases more D, influencing long-term D/H evolution. These findings suggest that evolutionary models should incorporate altitude-dependent processes for accurate D/H fractionation predictions.

Study on temperature regulation capability of asphalt mixture modified by dual phase change material used in ultra-thin overlay

ABSTRACT A dual-phase change material (DPCM) containing polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400/expanded graphite (EG) and PEG1500/EG with both high and low-temperature regulation capacities was prepared. It was added as an additive to the NovaChip-Type C asphalt mixtures. Laboratory and field temperature regulation tests were designed. The images taken by SEM showed that PEG was fully adsorbed by EG and the structure of DPCM was stable. The test results showed the DPCM has good durability in the cyclic phase change process. The modified asphalt binders with different DPCM content showed different heat storage capacity. The results of temperature regulation tests showed that the addition of DPCM effectively reduced the temperature change rate of asphalt mixtures. With 1.88% DPCM, the extremum of high temperature of asphalt mixtures reduced by 2.3°C while the extremum of low temperature increased by 2.0°C. In terms of road performance, the cracking resistance at low temperature of asphalt mixtures gradually improved with the increase of DPCM content. Meanwhile, the rutting resistance at high temperature and water damage resistance still met the requirements of the specification. The DPCM had a good effect on restraining the occurrence of road diseases caused by temperature and prolonging the service life of the road.

Analysis of Strength Improvement and Crystallographic Tranformations In an Isothermal Oil Quenched on Martempering AISI 4140

This study aims to maintain the phase change process of 4140 steel at the starting point of martensite (Ms) by adjusting the speed and restraint of the transformation process to prevent the formation of the final martensite (Mf) phase. The use of oil with a constant temperature is able to stabilize the austenite phase into retained austenite (RA). The isothermal cooling (IQ) process uses a cooling chamber controlled by a microcontroller. The partitioning process is isothermal quenching deformation (IQDP) by heating the specimen at 850oC for 20 minutes which is rapidly cooled in oil quenching medium at constant temperature. Oil quenching media is used to hold the cooling rate so that the austenite phase transformation (FCC crystal) to martensite phase (BCT crystal) occurs. The effect of IQDP treatment on phase change, crystal orientation and mechanical properties were analyzed by hardness test, tensile test and SEM. The test results show that IQ treatment on SAE 40 oil is able to increase its tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The application of isothermal quenching using SAE 40 oil with a constant temperature of 40 oC has been proven to increase the ductility of raw materials from 1226.94 MPa to 1361.77 MPa.

A Meshless Method of Radial Basis Function-Finite Difference Approach to 3-Dimensional Numerical Simulation on Selective Laser Melting Process

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a rapidly evolving technology that requires extensive knowledge and management for broader industrial adoption due to the complexity of phenomena involved. The selection of parameters and numerical analysis for the SLM process are both costly and time-consuming. In this paper, a three-dimensional radial basis function-finite difference (RBF-FD) meshless model is introduced to accurately and efficiently simulate the molten pool size and temperature distribution during the SLM process for austenitic stainless steel (AISI 316L). Two different volumetric moving heat source models were presented, namely the ray-tracing method heat source model and the double-ellipsoidal shape heat source model. The temperature-dependent material properties and phase change process were also considered, based on experiments and effective models. Results of the model for the molten pool size were validated with those of the literature. The proposed approach can be used to predict the effect of different laser power and scan speed on the molten pool size and temperature gradient along the depth direction. The result reveals that the depth of the molten pool is more sensitive to laser power than scan speed. Under the same scan speed, a 22% change in laser power (45 ± 10 W) affects the maximum temperature proportionally by about 9%. The developed algorithm is computationally efficient and suitable for industrial applications.

Incorporated surfaces and confined spaces of Na2HPO4·12H2O–Layered vermiculite nanosheets for phase change materials with enhanced thermal properties

The phase change process of hydrated salts with a large latent heat and non-flammable characteristics is a promising route for achieving energy-efficient devices. To improve the reliability of the inorganic phase change material (PCM) system, excellent heat storage capacity, low supercooling degree, and good stability of hydrated salts are required. In this study, novel Na2HPO4·12H2O (DHPD)–vermiculite nanosheet (VMTNS) composite PCMs (CPCMs) possessing both surfaces and confined spaces were theoretically designed and synthesized. Incorporating the environmentally friendly VMTNSs, a new type of nano-reinforced fillers with multiple active sites, into DHPD hydrated salt results in excellent crystallization, great diffusion ability (33.277 × 10−11 m2/s), a low supercooling degree (0.8 °C), a high latent heat of melting (260.7 J/g), and great thermal stability of CPCMs. The DHPD arrangement both in the confined spaces and on the surfaces of the VMTNSs was simulated via molecular dynamics calculations. It was found that the adsorption energy of DHPD in the confined spaces of the VMTNSs and on their surfaces is –5.991 and –5.543 eV, respectively. This study provides an innovative method to construct novel CPCMs for efficient energy storage.

Visualization investigation on heat and mass transfer of Al2O3 nanofluid in vapor chamber

As the vapor chamber (VC) moves towards ultra-thinness to meet the thermal management of microelectronic devices, achieving efficient heat transfer within a limited space poses severe challenges. In this study, a visualization VC with a thickness of only 0.9 mm was designed to investigate the heat transfer effect and boiling behavior of nanofluid applied on VC. The influences of Al2O3-deionized water (Al2O3-DW) with different mass concentrations and filling ratios on the heat transfer characteristics and flowing behavior were explored. The results indicated that the addition of nanoparticles improved the temperature uniformity and startup performance of VC. At 0.3 wt%, nanofluid promoted bubbles generation and growth, enhancing the phase-change process. The minimum thermal resistance was 1.46 K/W, representing a 13.6 % reduction compared to that of DW. However, at 0.6 wt% and under high filling ratios or heat load, excessive nanoparticles tended to accumulate on the surface of bubbles by surface tension during the boiling process and were pushed to the gas–liquid interface under the pressure gradient, resulting in deteriorated heat transfer. The results also found that deposition of nanoparticles further enhanced heat transfer. Nonetheless, the nanoparticles were detached from the substrate as the bubbles boiled, and the enhancement effect gradually diminished. The relevant research findings provide guidance for the application of nanofluids in ultra-thin VC.

Thermal management of a battery pack using fin-embedded phase change material

Abstract The present study focuses on the numerical investigation of heat transfer from a battery cell surrounded by phase change material (PCM) with longitudinal fins embedded in it. Three-dimensional transient heat conduction equation is solved numerically in the battery domain, whereas the solidification-melting model adopting Enthalpy-Porosity approach is solved in PCM to obtain liquid fraction and temperature distribution. PCM with 16 fins was found to be quite effective in reducing the battery surface temperature compared to 12, 8, and 4 fins. However, the effectiveness of 16 fins is observed up to 1500 sec till the PCM completely melts into liquid. A maximum reduction of 25 K has been achieved at 1500 sec by adding 16 fins to PCM. Beyond 1500 sec, the temperature rises sharply, exceeding all other cases at 2200 sec. Fins play an essential role in augmenting heat transfer, which benefits in achieving the phase change process in less time to restrict the temperature rise; however, at the same time, when the phase change process completes, fins become detrimental to the system since the temperature of the battery starts rising sharply.

Editor's Note for article entitled “Optimization of phase change process in a sinusoidal-wavy conductive walled cylinder with encapsulated-phase change material during magnetohydrodynamic nanofluid convection”

Editor's Note for article entitled “Optimization of phase change process in a sinusoidal-wavy conductive walled cylinder with encapsulated-phase change material during magnetohydrodynamic nanofluid convection”

Study on the Influence of Phase Change Process on the Desorption Characteristics of Gas-Containing Anthracite in Phase Change Heat Storage Materials

Study on the Influence of Phase Change Process on the Desorption Characteristics of Gas-Containing Anthracite in Phase Change Heat Storage Materials

Development and Investigation of Nitrate Phase Change Filler Material for Solar Process Heating Applications

Thermocline thermal energy storage system is an imperial system for solar process heating applications. The thermal energy storage system comprises filler material and heat transfer fluid. In the present study, the commercial phase change material (PCM) (filler material) solar salt (60%NaNO3+40%KNO3) is synthesized, and it is encapsulated with a 1mm thickness of stainless steel 316L encapsulation with the macro-size of 60mm; the encapsulated PCMs is considered as a single particle in the thermocline thermal energy storage system. The performance of the single encapsulated PCM is studied with a constant heat transfer fluid (Therminol-VP1) flow rate of 0.00015 kg/s during the charging process. The specific heat of the solar salt is measured in Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) in the solid phase is found as 1.381 J/gK, and liquid phase is identified as 1.551 J/g-K, the enthalpy during the phase change process is found as 116.72 J/g. As well, the thermal conductivity of the solar salt is measured in Transient Heat Conduction method, and the thermal conductivity follows the linear relationship of -0.0025(T)+0.4023 (45ºC&lt;T&lt;100ºC) in the sensible region. The temperature variations and the phase change phenomena for the solar salt is identified and the contours are provided. The charging time for the encapsulated solar salt is identified as ~138 minutes. The energy storage cost for the single filler material (Solar Salt + SS316L encapsulation) is identified as Rs.5.93/- (USD 0.071) for the period of charging duration.

A consistent phase-field model for three-phase flows with cylindrical/spherical interfaces

A phase-field model for three-phase flows with cylindrical/spherical interfaces is established by combining the Navier-Stokes (NS), the continuity, and the energy equations, with an explicit form of curvature-dependent modified Allen-Cahn (AC) and Cahn-Hilliard (CH) equations. These modified AC and CH equations are proposed to solve the inconsistency of the phase-field method between flat and curved interfaces, which can result in “phase-vanishing” problems and the break of mass conservation during the phase-changing process. It is proved that the proposed model satisfies the energy dissipation law (energy stability). Then the icing process with three phases, i.e., air, water, and ice, is simulated on the surface of a cylinder and a sphere, respectively. It is demonstrated that the modification of the AC and CH equations remedies the inconsistency between flat and curved interfaces and the corresponding “phase-vanishing” problem. The evolution of the curved water-air and the water-ice interfaces are captured simultaneously, and the volume expansion during the solidification owing to the density difference between water and ice agrees with the theoretical results. A two-dimensional icing case with bubbles rising is simulated. The movement and deformation of bubbles, as well as the evolution of the interfaces, effectively illustrate the complex interactions between different phases in the icing process with phase changes.

Simultaneous close-contact melting on two asymmetric surfaces: Demonstration, modeling and application to thermal storage

The present study deals with melting in a geometry suitable for Latent-Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES) systems, which are of importance for future industrial installations utilizing solar energy or waste heat. The intrinsically high thermal resistance of phase-change materials (PCM) can be remedied by taking advantage of close contact melting (CCM), where the solid phase is separated from a hot surface by only a thin liquid layer. The basic CCM takes place on a horizontal flat surface, but during the last decade its application in various finned LHTES units has been demonstrated experimentally and analyzed numerically.Specifically, the configuration studied in the present work is relevant to a horizontal double-pipe concentric storage unit with a longitudinally finned inner tube. While this rather simple geometry has been extensively studied in the past, the present work is completely novel in its demonstration and analysis of simultaneous close-contact melting on two generally asymmetric surfaces created by the longitudinal fins. A unique experimental apparatus is introduced, based on the so-called 'Mercedes' configuration of the fins. It is designed transparent, allowing for real-time observation of melting sequences. Close-contact melting is achieved by supplying heat to the outer shell of the unit: the solid phase is detached from the shell and moves, by translation and rotation, in the liquid phase. The results from these experiments demonstrate the feasibility of CCM on two asymmetric walls within this system, hinting at the potential for optimizing the melting rate by utilizing a larger portion of the extended surface for CCM.A key component of this study is the development of a reliable numerical approach, which goes beyond the limitations of widely-applied enthalpy-porosity method and combines the general enthalpy formulation, convective heat transfer and general rigid body motion that includes rotation. Therefore, a new numerical model has been devised, using an in-house code realized in MATLAB. A full set of the governing conservation equations is solved using a finite-difference framework, integrated with advanced numerical methods for the fluid-solid interaction and an enthalpy formulation for the phase change process. The model is validated carefully, and then numerical studies are conducted to elucidate the melting process.The present paper presents a further proof of the special role that close-contact melting (CCM) can play in properly designed thermal energy storage units and finned systems in general. It is demonstrated that the fins, when properly designed and oriented, can induce CCM in their vicinity, contributing to a very significant increase in the melting rate, which reflects charging of the unit.

Transient thermal management of laser systems using Plate-Fin phase change heat Exchangers: Experimental and computational study

To mitigate transient thermal shocks in lasers and reduce thermal stresses caused by temperature fluctuations, the use of phase change materials (PCMs) in thermal management systems is a viable solution. This study proposes an innovative two-dimensional transient heat transfer model specifically designed for plate-fin phase change heat exchangers (PFPCHEs). The model meticulously simulates the complex heat transfer phenomena within the heat exchanger, including fluid convection, solid thermal conduction, and the phase change processes of PCM. The convective heat transfer coefficient between fluid and plate is calculated using the Wieting correlation. An advanced pulse-mode experimental test platform was constructed to validate the model, dynamically monitoring and recording outlet temperatures and heat exchange performance for stringent experimental comparison. The research explores the impact of key operating parameters such as initial temperature, flow rate, and inlet temperature of the cooling cycle on the performance of the heat exchanger, providing valuable design and control strategies for transient thermal management of laser systems. The experimental results confirm that the model accurately predicts the dynamic response characteristics and temperature distribution of PFPCHEs under multi-cycle pulse loads, with 96% of the predictions within a 10% error margin. A significant finding is that the initial temperature has negligible influence on the heat transfer characteristics when it is below the solid phase temperature of the PCM. Moreover, by meticulously adjusting the flow rate and inlet temperature of cooling cycle, it is possible to effectively maintain the stability of the outlet temperature throughout the entire pulse cycle. This is crucial for minimizing temperature fluctuations within the thermal management system and extending the service life of electronic components.