Pharmaceutical Formulations Research Articles

Co-sorption of volatile components in polymer-based pharmaceutical formulations

Amorphous Solid Dispersions (ASDs) are mixtures of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and polymers aiming to increase API aqueous solubility and bioavailability. ASDs are often produced using solvent-based manufacturing, such as spray drying. Due to solubility or miscibility limitations in one solvent, solvent mixtures are frequently used for this purpose. Drying solvents or solvent mixtures from polymer-based products like ASDs is an energy-intensive and time-consuming process. Designing and optimising this drying process requires knowledge of the sorption isotherms of the solvent(s) in these polymer-based products. In this work, we developed a novel approach for measuring the simultaneous absorption/desorption of two solvents in a polymer. Combining classical dynamic vapour sorption (DVS) measurements with Raman spectroscopy, this innovative approach provides a more detailed and accurate measurement of the sorption isotherms than common methods. Moreover, we developed an approach for precisely predicting the sorption equilibria in three-component systems just based on sorption data of the corresponding binary subsystems. Our modelling approach combines the Perturbed-Chain Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (PC-SAFT) with the Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics of Glassy Polymers (NET-GP). Building on the description of the sorption isotherms of either water or ethanol in poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate) (PVPVA64) and in indomethacin (IND), we were able to quantitatively predict the simultaneous sorption of water and ethanol in PVPVA64 and the one of ethanol in an IND/PVPVA64 ASD.

Simultaneous Estimation of Atazanavir & Ritonavir in API & Marketed Formulations by Using RP-HPLC

Development and validation of RP-HPLC method for simultaneous estimation of Atazanavir and Ritonavir in their combined tablet dosage form. Atazanavir and Ritonavir are antiviral agents used in treatment of HIV. A simple, precise, rapid, accurate and cost-effective high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was successfully developed and validated for simultaneous estimation of Atazanavir and Ritonavir in their combined tablet dosage form. The selected mobile phase was Methanol: Phosphate Buffer in proportion 65:35 v/v respectively. The optimized columns used are C18 column, Symmetry and Zodiac column. X bridge C18 (4.6×150 mm, 5 µm) particle size was found to be ideal as it gave good peak shape and resolution at 1ml/min flow for Atazanavir and Ritonavir. In this study, the validation of Atazanavir and Ritonavir in API and marketed formulations were performed keeping in accordance with the parameters like system suitability, specificity, linearity, accuracy, precision (reproducibility & repeatability), robustness. The developed stability indicating method is capable for determination of impurities of Atazanavir and Ritonavir in combined tablet dosage form as well as individual dosage forms also. The method has been successfully validated according to ICH guidelines and the results obtained by using RP – HPLC are rapid, accurate and precise. The proposed methods were successfully applied for the analysis of synthetic mixtures and pharmaceutical formulations of Atazanavir and Ritonavir.

Investigation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of cannabis in cosmeceuticals

Biotechnology, as an interdisciplinary scientific field, is crucial in identifying the valuable active ingredients of plants. Their application extends beyond medical and pharmaceutical formulations to encompass cosmetics, in which these natural substances play a significant role. This article aimed to investigate the potential advantages of integrating cannabis-derived compounds into skincare cosmetic formulations. Their therapeutic efficacy on diverse dermatoses was emphasised. The diverse applications of cannabinoids and terpenes in cosmetic formulations were also examined. Scientific report analysis confirms the beneficial effects of cannabis-derived compounds, including cannabidiol and seed oil, in enhancing skin health and addressing inflammation and dermatological issues. The potential of cannabis-derived compounds in creating novel and effective cosmeceutical products was emphasised.

DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION OF UV SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING N-ACETYLCYSTEINE IN TABLET FORMULATIONS

Objective: This study aimed to determine the concentration of N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) in tablet formulations using UV-Visiblespectroscopy. Methods: A precise and accurate UV spectrophotometric method was developed for determining N-acetylcysteine in tablets, using 0.1N NaOH as a diluent. The drug's purity was assessed using UV-visible spectrophotometry, which validated linearity, accuracy, precision, specificity, limit of detection, and quantification. Results: The calibration curve had a high correlation coefficient (r2 = 0.9992) and maximum absorbance at 235 nm. There was no interference in dosage. The results showed 100.17% mean % recovery and 100.27% tablet assay, with a precision of 0.60% and 0.57%, respectively. The method was robust and rugged. Conclusion: The method was evaluated using statistical parameters, including precision, accuracy, linearity, recovery, and robustness. The results showed no significant differences compared to other methods. The method can be used to analyse pharmaceutical formulations quickly, and no significant differences in mean values and standard deviations were found.

Aloe-emodin: Progress in Pharmacological Activity, Safety, and Pharmaceutical Formulation Applications.

Aloe-emodin (AE) is an anthraquinone derivative and a biologically active component sourced from various plants, including Rheum palmatum L. and Aloe vera. Known chemically as 1,8-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-anthraquinone, AE has a rich history in traditional medicine and is esteemed for its accessibility, safety, affordability, and effectiveness. AE boasts multiple biochemical and pharmacological properties, such as strong antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. Despite its array of benefits, AE's identity as an anthraquinone derivative raises concerns about its potential for liver and kidney toxicity. Nevertheless, AE is considered a promising drug candidate due to its significant bioactivities and cost efficiency. Recent research has highlighted that nanoformulated AE may enhance drug delivery, biocompatibility, and pharmacological benefits, offering a novel approach to drug design. This review delves into AE's pharmacological impacts, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and safety profile, incorporating insights from studies on its nanoformulations. The goal is to outline the burgeoning research in this area and to support the ongoing development and utilization of AE-based therapies.

Effects of the Slow-release Curcumin-loaded Selenium Nanoparticles on Experimental Peritonitis

Background: New pharmaceutical forms of natural compounds such as curcumin can be an effective intervention to control peritonitis and abdominal adhesion. Objectives: This study investigates the effects of slow-release curcumin-loaded selenium nanoparticles (Cur@S.N) on some inflammatory biomarkers in experimental peritonitis. Methods: After synthesizing selenium nanoparticles (S.N) and (Cur@S.N), experimental peritonitis was surgically induced in 80 adult male rats. The control group received no treatment, whereas the other groups received single intraperitoneal doses of 0.25 mg/kg S.N, 50 mg/kg curcumin, and 0.25+50 mg/kg (Cur@S.N). Blood malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) were measured on days 3, 7 and 14, and also intra-abdominal adhesion assessment was done. Results: On day 3, NO levels in all treatment groups significantly decreased (P>0.05), while the lowest level was seen on day 14 in the S.N group (P˂0.05). MDA was significantly lower in the S.N and Cur@S.N groups than in the control on days 3, 7 and 14 (P˂0.05). TNF-α levels in S.N and Cur@S.N groups were significantly lower than in the control group on day 3 (P≤0.05). Meanwhile, the S.N group had the lowest level on day 14. IL-6 significantly decreased on days 3 and 7 in the Cur@S.N and curcumin groups compared to the control group (P˂0.05). Conclusion: Cur@S.N group possesses significant anti-inflammatory efficacy by reducing MDA, NO, IL-6 and TNF-α, decreasing peritonitis and intra-abdominal adhesion.

Spectrophotometric Determination of Norepinephrine in Industrial Equipment Cleaning Rinse Water by Its Own Absorbance and The Tollens’ Reagent

A literature review of the available spectrophotometric methods of determination of catecholamines is presented. Based on this review, two simple spectrophotometric methods for the determination of norepinephrine bitartrate in pharmaceutical formulations and industrial equipment cleaning rinse waters were chosen and validated. The first method for the determination of norepinephrine at ppm levels utilizes the absorbance band of the solution of norepinephrine bitartrate at 279 nm. The second method for the determination of norepinephrine at ppb levels is based on the reaction of norepinephrine with the Tollens’ reagent in the presence of the cationic surfactant cetylpyridinium chloride and the colorimetric determination of the formed colloidal silver nanoparticles. The calibration graphs are linear in the range from 1 to 150 mg/l of norepinephrine for the first method and 25 µg/l to 10 mg/l for the second method. The molar attenuation coefficients are 388 and 7560 m2/mol, respectively, the limits of detection are 1.1 mg/l and 3.1 µg/l, and the limits of quantification are 3.3 mg/l and 9.4 µg/l, respectively. Both methods are selective concerning the common excipients, show good accuracy (the relative uncertainties do not exceed 4 and 7%, respectively) and precision (the relative standard deviations do not exceed 4 and 7%, respectively), and do not require lengthy sample preparation and sophisticated laboratory equipment.

STABILITY INDICATING ANALYTICAL METHOD DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF AMLODIPINE AND LOSARTAN POTASSIUM BY UPLC

A rapid and precise reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic method has been developed for the validated of Amlodipine and Losartan Potassium, in its pure form as well as in tablet dosage form. Chromatography was carried out on Acquity BEH-shield RP18 UPLC column (3.0 mm × 100) mm, particle size Column using a mixture of Acetonitrile and Acetate buffer (pH-4.3) (35:65% v/v) as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min, the detection was carried out at 238nm. The retention time of the Amlodipine and Losartan Potassium was found to be 2.179, 3.610 ±0.02min respectively. The method produce linear responses in the concentration range of 20-60µg/ml of Amlodipine and 10-30µg/ml of Losartan Potassium respectively. The method precision for the determination of assay was below 2.0% RSD. The method is useful in the quality control of bulk and pharmaceutical formulations.

Controlled Sol-Gel Transitions of Metal-Organic Membrane-Enveloped Cellulose Nanofibrils via Metal Coordination in Aqueous Media.

We report a metal coordination-driven sol-gel transition system where cellulose nanofibrils are enveloped by a rationally designed metal-organic membrane (MOM) in an aqueous medium. Specifically, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO)-oxidized bacterial cellulose (TOBC) is encapsulated within an MOM comprising Zn2+ and the chelator phytic acid (PA), denoted TOBCMOM. Using the DLVO theory, we elucidate how tuning the metal ion valence in TOBCMOM modulates the sol-gel transition by controlling interfibrillar attractive forces. Notably, TOBCMOM fluids exhibit relaxation times consistent with the Kohlrausch-Williams-Watts (KWW) function. Significantly, we demonstrate reversible, sustainable sol-gel transitions in TOBCMOM under stepwise mechanical strain. This facile approach enables rheological tailoring of aqueous media, promising for the development of advanced stimuli-responsive smart fluids for applications in cosmetics, food science, and pharmaceutical formulations.

Determination of valsartan drug by ion pair complex formation method in tablet form

A rapid, simple, sensitive, spectroscopic, ion pair complex method was developed for valsartan (VAL ) in pharmaceutical forms. Resazurin dye was used to form an ion pairing complex with the drug valsartan. analytical characteristics of the proposed method are Beer’s law range =10-60 (μg/mL), correlation coefficient (R2) = 0.9976 , limit of detection (LOD) = 0.1076(µg/mL), limit of quantification (LOQ) = 0.3261 (µg/mL), recovery percentage (%Rec) = (101.9626% - 95.6074%), relative standard deviation (%RSD)= 0.6188% - 0.7148%, Molar absorption (ε)= 4659.85(L/mol.cm), Sandell's index(S) = 0.093458(μg/cm2),at wavelength 495 nm . The results showed high accuracy and precision of the proposed quantification method for the valsartan drug , and it was of high accuracy and consistent.

Effect of Food-Grade Pharmaceutical Excipients on Physicochemical Behaviour of Quercetin Nanocomposites: Thermal and Non-Thermal Analysis

In this study, the compatibility of Quercetin (QC) nanocomposites with some selective food-grade pharmaceutical excipients was assessed using various thermal (DSC and TGA), non-thermal (P-XRD, FT-IR, and RAMAN spectroscopy, and FESEM) techniques. All the techniques were simultaneously used and correlated to detect the QC's compatibility with the selected excipients (CO, CCO, OA, T20, T60, and T80). DSC-TG studies showed that QC-CO and QC-T60 samples exhibited irregular degradation patterns, causing the drug's transformation from crystalline to amorphous. P-XRD results showed that the crystalline behavior of QC was retained in all the samples. However, the peak intensities were reduced and shifted in some samples. The Davg. value for all samples, including pure QC, was 26.80-76.07 nm. FT-IR and RAMAN studies demonstrated that bonds including –C=O stretching, C-C stretching (ring A), and -OH bonds (in ring A, B, and C) in pure QC play a crucial role in its interaction with excipients. Furthermore, the excipients' effect on QC's morphology using FESEM showed smoothening, fragmentation, and agglomeration of the drug. In conclusion, the possible drug-excipient incompatibility can be potentially determined with the help of these analytical methods. The physicochemical studies from this work may provide immense knowledge for the researchers and manufacturers involved in quercetin-based pharmaceutical and/or nutraceutical formulations.

Characterization of extracted alpha cellulose from Manihot esculenta (cassava) peels as formulation aid for paracetamol tablet

Background: Alpha-cellulose as a pharmaceutical excipient can be employed as a binding agent in tablet formulation. Cassava peels husk are waste agricultural material and is being investigated for its α-cellulose for use in oral solid pharmaceutical formulation. Purpose: The objective of this study is to extract α-cellulose from cassava peels agro-industrial waste using a standard method, subject the extracted cassava peels cellulose and determine its phytochemical and physicochemical properties of formulated granules of paracetamol. Methods: Alpha-cellulose from cassava peel was extracted using alkali method. The fresh peels were prepared, milled into slurry and de-watered to obtain a coarse wet material, dried, milled and sieved to obtain very fine powdered particles. Phytochemical analysis and characterization of extracted α-cellulose powder were determined. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron micrographs (SEM), and x-ray diffractogram (XRD) analysis of extracted cassava peel cellulose were done. Paracetamol granules was prepared by wet granulation using varying concentrations of the binders. Results: DSC and XRD results revealed a semi-crystalline material with amorphous and crystalline regions. while the SEM showed a lumpy structure and reticular shape. Pre-compression evaluations of the formulated batches of paracetamol granules showed that cassava peels cellulose (CPC) have similar flow properties with those of microcrystalline cellulose BP (MCC) and acacia BP (ACA) powders respectively. The granules have free flow properties with average angles of repose (CPC ≤ 27.60 MCC < 26.90 and ACA ≤ 25.60), compressibility index (CPC ≤ 25, MCC ≤ 23 and ACA ≤ 21.7%), Hausner’s ratio (CPC ≤ 1.32, MCC ≤ 1.31, and ACA ≤ 1.27) respectively. Conclusion: The extracted cassava peel α-cellulose was found ideal as pharmaceutical excipient binder in oral solid dosage forms.

Graphene oxide functionalized with silatrane as probe for electrochemical recognition of acetaminophen in pharmaceuticals tablets

Acetaminophen, commonly known as paracetamol, is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug that is frequently found in over-the-counter and prescription medications. Due to its extensive use, precise monitoring of acetaminophen levels is crucial for ensuring patient safety, especially to prevent accidental overdoses which can lead to severe liver damage. In this study, a novel electrochemical sensor based on graphene oxide (GO) functionalized with silatrane was developed for the detection of acetaminophen. The hybrid material was synthesized and electrodeposited on a glassy carbon electrode, providing a highly selective, sensitive, and reproducible platform for acetaminophen detection. The sensor exhibited a linear detection range from 2.5 to 100 μM with a limit of detection of 84.8 nM. The effectiveness of this GO-based sensing platform was demonstrated through the successful quantification of acetaminophen in pharmaceutical tablets such as Dolo 650, Paracip, and Crocin. The results highlight the potential application of this sensor in quality control and safety monitoring of pharmaceutical formulations, ensuring accurate determination of acetaminophen content.

Optimization of the experimental design parameters for synthesis of Fluconazole loaded transethosomes as nano-based antifungal vesicles

Introduction: Antifungal drugs formulated in conventional pharmaceutical forms are not fully effective due to various factors. New approaches have focused on transdermal delivery drugs, including transethosomes, where the mixture of ethanol and surfactant allows a deeper drug skin’s penetration. Formulation parameters and process variables can make their optimization a considerable challenge. This study aimed to formulate Fluconazole-loaded transethosomes using a full-factorial design with the goal of optimizing formulation and process variables. Method: Fluconazole transethosomes were developed using the cold Method. A 21,31 full-factorial design was created by Design Expert® Software, where the impact of surfactant’s type and soy lecithin to surfactant ratio on resulting formulation were investigated. The formulations were tested for vesicle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Results: Formulations containing Tween®80 presented the smaller particle sizes and showed a considerable entrapment efficiency for Fluconazole, they were more homogenous and highly stable compared to those prepared with Span®80. The optimized soy lecithin to surfactant ratio of 90:10 with Tween®80 was deemed apt for the synthesis of transethosomes giving the optimal formulation with a small particle size (300.2±5.57 nm), a low PDI (0.203±0.004), a good zeta potential (−31.75±0.68 mV) and a high entrapment efficiency (88.11±0.74 %). Conclusion: This study enabled the in-depth identification and optimization of the key factors involved in the experimental process, such as the type of surfactant used and the soybean lecithin-to-surfactant ratio. To ensure safety and effectiveness in use, this work provides the perspective of continuing the study by evaluating the antifungal activity, long-term stability and safety of Fluconazole-loaded transethosomes.

Anticancer Activities of Synthesized Niosome Nanoparticles Using Artemisia Annua Extract: Caspase3 and Caspase9 Apoptosis Gene Expression Analysis in Breast Cancer Cell Line (MCF-7)

Introduction: Pharmaceutical formulation of nanoparticles is widely used due to achieving targeted and stable drug release, improving drug solubility and reducing side drug reactions. One of the ways to improve the survival of cancer patients is the treatment using nanocarriers for anticancer drugs. The aim of this study was to synthesize encapsulated nisomes containing the extract of the Artemisia annua and investigate the anticancer and apoptotic effects against breast cancer cell lines. Methods: In this study, a Niosomes nanocarrier was made and then the extract of Gondwash herb was loaded into it. Its physical and chemical properties were confirmed using SEM, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential. Likewise, the encapsulation percentage and release pattern of the extract were investigated. Finally, its anticancer effects against the breast cancer cell line (MCF_7) were investigated and the expression level of apoptotic genes Caspase3 and Caspase9 was studied using Real Time PCR method. At the end, statistical analysis was done by GraphPad Prism software, and cytotoxicity and gene expression data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance. Results: The findings showed that the synthesized nanocarrier newsom containing the extract had a spherical structure and its size was 208.1 nanometers, the encapsulation percentage was 62.35% and the surface charge was 22.5. Similarly, newsome nanocarrier containing the extract had significant anticancer effects compared to the free extract and increased the expression of caspase 3 and caspase 9 genes by 1.184 ± 0.34 (P<0.05) and 1.68 ± 0.81, respectively. (P<0.05). Conclusion: The results showed that the nisome containing the extract of the Gondwash herb increases the anti-cancer and apoptotic effects significantly, and therefore, with further studies in the future, nisome can be used as a targeted drug delivery system for anti-cancer purposes.

Study of polymer component migrated in medicinal product from transportation packaging component: A systematic assessment beyond regulatory expectations

Light Density Polyethylene (LDPE) bottles with a specific resin were chosen as container closure system (CCS) to fill “Latanoprost ophthalmic solution” (a generic drug product). As an alternative packaging component, additional manufacturer of LDPE bottles with the same characteristics as the previously selected LDPE bottles was chosen. The appropriateness of both packaging components was evaluated using an extractables and leachable (E&L) study and a formal stability programme that monitored quality of latanoprost ophthalmic solution. The results of relevant quality attributes in stability samples of latanoprost ophthalmic solution packed in both LDPE bottles were compared. It noticed that an unknown impurity in latanoprost ophthalmic solution packaged in LDPE bottles manufactured by an additional manufacturer. Further study revealed that this unknown impurity is Epsilon-caprolactam, a leachable of plastic used in the transportation of LDPE bottles. The leachability was validated through an extraction analysis of a plastic bag used for transportation. Thus, in certain cases, when the source of leachable is not identifiable by an E&L examination of primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging components, the assessment could be extended to include packaging components utilized throughout the supply chain.

Superior Electrochemical Sensor Application of Co3O4/C Heterostructure in Rapid Analysis of Anticancer Drug Palbociclib in Pharmaceutical Formulations and Biological Fluids.

In this work, we report a study examining how different salt concentrations affect the structure and electrochemical performance of two Co3O4/C materials designed for the fabrication of an easy, cheap, fast, safe, and useful electrochemical sensor for the detection of Palbociclib (PLB). Co3O4 nanoparticles were successfully created by encapsulating them in N-doped amorphous carbon matrices by using the molten salt-assisted approach. In this process, different amounts of potassium iodate and zeolitic imidazolate framework-12 (ZIF-12) were used, followed by pyrolysis at 800 °C. Optimum Co3O4 embedded porous carbon structures were obtained, and the composite with the highest electrochemical properties was modified to a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface for PLB detection. The linear response spanned from 1.0 to 5.0 μM, featuring a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.122 μM and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.408 μM; the correlation coefficient was calculated as 0.995. The high sensitivity of the method in detecting PLB in pharmaceutical samples and human urine demonstrated its feasibility, with recovery percentages ranging from 99.3% to 101.3% and relative standard deviation (RSD) values of <3%. Therefore, this technique will make a significant contribution to monitoring and improving existing cancer treatment options.

Colorimetric approach based on iron oxide magnetic molecularly imprinted nanozyme for sensitive determination of antipyrine and benzocaine: Application to environmental water samples and pharmaceutical dosage form

Nanozymes provide the required enzymatic activity however, they lack the selectivity to target a certain drug during analysis. Herein, a novel polydopamine molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was fabricated onto Fe3O4 nanozymes surface for sensitive and selective determination of antipyrine (ANT) and benzocaine HCl (BEN). Synthesized Fe3O4 nanozyme with peroxidase like activity catalyzed the oxidation of ortho phenylenediamine by the aid of H2O2 to produce intense yellow color that can be measured via colorimetric assay. The MIPs were prepared and characterized using field-emission scanning electronic microscopy, Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy, surface area analysis, and X-ray diffraction spectrum. Two Fe3O4 @ MIP NPs nanozyme with peroxidase like activity of two drugs were prepared. Upon binding of the target drug with its respective MIP, an inhibition in the Fe3O4 enzymatic activity occurred and thus a decrease in the yellow color produced. This quantitative decrease in the color intensity represents the drug concentration. Factors affecting the enzymatic colorimetric reaction have been investigated and optimized. The formed MIPs increased the sensitivity of the proposed method with LOD 1.405, 0.658 ng mL−1, LOQ 4.259, 1.993 and recovery percentage of 100.07, 100.57 for ANT and BEN, respectively. The reusability of the Fe3O4 @ MIP NPs was assessed for six cycles without significant loss in enzymatic oxidase activity. Furthermore, the method was validated following ICH guidelines. Then, it was successfully applied for determination of the two drugs in spiked environmental water samples and pharmaceutical formulation.

Dual Electrochemical Methods for Determination of Anesthetic Procaine

Procaine belongs to a type of medicine in which excessive dosage form creates cardiac problems and many allergenic reactions. Thus, continuous monitoring of this drug and its metabolite is crucial for sustainable health management during treatment. In this study, electrochemical techniques such as square wave voltammetry (SWV) and differential pulse polarography (DPP) are utilized for assaying procaine amounts in standard and pharmaceutical formulations. In SWV, the reduction of diazotized procaine gives a reduction peak at −0.05 V which is directly proportional with procaine hydrochloride concentration, whereas in DPP, the interaction of the drug with lead cation at −0.4 V is followed by the decrease in peak current of the lead cation reduction peak, which is directly proportional with the concentration of the drug. Both methods indicate high accuracy, sensitivity and precision. Linear concentration ranges of both methods are 0.0999–5.996 × 10-7 M for SWV and 0.1999–5.996 × 10-7 M for DPP. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) are calculated for both SWV and DPP techniques, and found that LOD equals 1.984 × 10-9 M and LOQ equals 6.611 × 10-9 M for SWV, while for (DPP) LOD and LOQ were found to be 3.519 × 10-9 M and 1.173 × 10-8 M, respectively.

Advancing Pharmaceutical Science with Artificial Neural Networks: A Review on Optimizing Drug Delivery Systems Formulation.

Drug Delivery Systems (DDS) have been developed to address the challenges associated with traditional drug delivery methods. These DDS aim to improve drug administration, enhance patient compliance, reduce side effects, and optimize target therapy. To achieve these goals, it is crucial to design DDS with optimal performance characteristics. The final properties of a DDS are determined by several factors that go into formulating a pharmaceutical preparation. Thus, optimizing these factors can lead to the ideal DDS formulation. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are computational models that mimic the function of biological neurons and neural networks and perform mathematical operations on inputs to generate outputs. ANN is widely used in medical sciences for modeling disease diagnosis and treatment, dose adjustment in combination therapy, medical education, and other fields. In the pharmaceutical sciences, ANN has gained significant attention for designing and optimizing pharmaceutical formulations. This article reviews the use of ANN in the design and optimization of pharmaceutical formulations, specifically DDS. Since DDS is highly diverse, different factors are examined for each type of DDS. These factors are considered independent and dependent parameters for each ANN model, and various examples are provided. By utilizing ANN, it is possible to establish the relationship between the formulation factors and the resulting DDS characteristics, ultimately leading to the development of optimized DDS.