Phallus Impudicus Research Articles

Odorous metabolites of an acellular slime mold, Physarum polycephalum Schw., and a basidiomycete, Phallus impudicus Pers.

Geosmin, having an earthy-musty smell, 2-methylquinoline, linalool, and other volatile compounds were detected from the culture of an acellular slime mold Physarum polycephalum SCHW.. Perillene, phenylacetaldehyde, β-phenethyl alcohol, veratrole, guaiacol, phenol, and related compounds were detected as volatile metabolites of a basidiomycete Phallus impudicus PERS.

Determination of Water, Solute and Turgor Potentials of Mycelium of Various Basidiomycete Fungi causing Wood Decay

Using thermocouple psychrometry, the water, solute and turgor potentials of hyphae of Phallus impudicus and Serpula lacrimans, cords of P. impudicus, Phanerochaete velutina and S. lacrimans and rhizomorphs of Armillaria melle'a were determined. A comparison was made between laboratoryand field-grown cords of P. impudicus and P. velutina. Comparison was made also between the water relations of the hyphae at the growing front, and hyphae of the more distal, basal regions. Similarly, the growing regions of cords/rhizomorphs were compared with the older, non-extending basal regions of the same structures. In all cases gradients of water and turgor potentials were found from basal, older regions to younger, extending regions. These results are discussed in relation to the mechanism of translocation in fungi.

Extent, development and function of mycelial cord systems in soil

Mycelial cord systems of Phallus impudicus, Phanerochaete velutina, Steccherinum fimbriatum, Stropharia aeruginosa and Tricholomopsis platyphylla, when excavated in the field, were found to be between 318 m (5. aeruginosa) and 317 m (P. velutina) in overall length. Cord systems of P. impudicus, P. velutina and T. platyphylla increased in length by 0.8, 0.95 and l.0 m respectively over 12–14 months. In all cases extension occurred via the peripheries of the systems, whilst certain more central parts disappeared. Mycelial development from colonized wood-blocks in tubes of non-sterile soil showed similar patterns to that observed in the field. However, in tubes of γ-irradiated soil mycelia were not aggregated into cords to such an extent as in non-sterile soil, and, except for T. platyphylla, had slower extension rates, although sometimes being more luxuriant. Wood-blocks colonized by Hypholoma fasciculate, S. fimbriatum, P. impudicus and P. velutina underwent significantly greater losses in dry weight in sterile soil than did blocks in non-sterile soil, except for those colonized by T. platyphylla. Cord systems of like and unlike mycelial types of P. velutina from wood blocks fused in soil, but whilst fusion of those of like mycelial type gave rise to cords of substantial diameter, fusions between different mycelial types were followed by death of the fine cords in the fused regions and avoidance of such regions thereafter. Cord formation by a coprophilous species occurred in non-sterile but not sterile conditions, and was associated with strong substratum directed growth responses.

DECOMPOSITION OF SUPPRESSED OAK TREES IN EVEN‐AGED PLANTATIONS.

SUMMARYArmillaria (=Armillariella) bulbosa, and several cord‐forming basidiomycetes were found to be the principal colonizers of suppressed oak tree roots on one site studied, whilst A. ostoyae and cord‐forming fungi prevailed on a second site. Interestingly A. mellea was not isolated at all. The rhizornorphic and cord‐forming fungi appeared to colonize peripherally at first but ultimately occupied large volumes of wood. Some cord‐forming fungi were able to replace others in culture whilst in other pairings deadlock was reached. There is some evidence that cord‐forming fungi can replace A. bulbosa and A. ostoyae but cultural experiments were difficult to interpret. A. bulbosa acts mostly saprophytically and probably occupies a similar ecological niche to cord‐forming fungi, e.g. Phanerochaete velutina, Hypholoma fasciculate and Phallus impudicus, which are also saprophytes. Whether A. ostoyae acts pathogenically or purely saprophytically is uncertain. Tricholomopsis platyphylla, another cord‐forming fungus, was prevalent on a third site studied in less detail and is suggested as being a later colonizer than the other cord‐forming and rhizomorphic fungi.Individual mycelia of A. bulbosa, A. ostoyae and P. velutina are shown to colonize roots in large areas of the sites studied and it is suggested that these fungi may be of significance in nutrient translocation in deciduous woodland ecosystems.

A field study of the association between the stinkhorn Phallus impudicus Pers. and the British fungal-breeding Drosophila

Emergence records for three species of Drosophila breeding in the stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus) are presented. These are D. phalerata, D. subobscura and D. cameraria. The numbers of stinkhorn present in one woodland (0.114 km2) have been estimated for a two-year period. In 1976, the total number of these fungal breeding sites during the summer was approximately 8000 and in 1977 it was 5300. Utilizing the estimates of breeding site numbers, Drosophila emergence data and estimates of adult survival from laboratory populations, density estimates for D. phalerata and D. subobscura are calculated.

Ultrastructural Studies of Clathraceae and Phallaceae (Gasteromycetes) Spores

Basidiospores of species of the Clathraceae and Phallaceae (Gasteromycetes) are usually borne 4-8 on a basidium. With light microscopic observations the characteristics of these spores are relatively similar: hyaline, bacillar, smooth and of the order of 2-6 x 1.5-2 ,tm. Hawker (1975) reported that the spores of Phallus impudicus L. ex Pers., Clathrus ruber Mich. ex Pers. (cited as C. cancellatus L.) and Mutinus caninus (Pers.) Fr. were smooth. While ultrastructural studies of gasteromycetous spores are numerous, electron micrographs of spores of only two stinkhorn members, Clathrus archeri (Berk.) Dring [cited as Anthurus archeri (Berk.) E. Fisch.] (Perreau, 1977) and M. caninus (Flegler and Hooper, 1980) are given in the literature. This lack of ultrastructural micrographs of stinkhorn spores may be in part due to the fact that the spores are relatively similar and would therefore not provide any differentiating morphological characteristics of taxonomic value. Also the Clathraceae and Phallaceae are not economically important, except for some minor poisonings of livestock and for sugar crop infestations. Fruiting bodies of these fungi are nuisances mainly because of the fetid smells they emit. Spores from fertile, dried glebal samples of the following species were observed by scanning electron microscopy: C. ruber, Lysurus cruciatus (Lepr. & Mont.) Lloyd, L. mokusin (Cibot ex Pers.) Fr., L. periphragmoides (Klotzsch) Dring, and Pseudocolus fusiformis (Fisch.) Lloyd (Clathraceae); and Mutinus caninus, M. elegans (Mont.) Fisch., and Phallus ravenelii Berk. & Curt. (Phallaceae). Spores from fertile, dried glebal samples of Pseudocolus fusiformis and from fresh specimens of M. caninus were observed by transmission electron microscopy. For scanning electron microscopy glebal samples were prepared according to Flegler and Hooper's (1978) technique. Procedures used in the transmission electron microscopy of freeze-fractured preparations are described by Kollmorgen et al. (1979).

Meiosis, basidiospore development and post-meiotic mitosis in the basidiomycete, Phallus impudicus

The meiotic spindles of Phallus impudicus had a similar ultrastructure to those seen in other basidiomycetes. After meiosis the basidal apex differentiated to form a number of broadly based protuberances which subsequently developed into basidiospores (up to 9 per basidium). The nuclei then underwent a post-meiotic mitosis within the cytoplasm of each basidiospore. After this mitosis one nucleus remained in the basidiospore and a complete septum developed at the base. The significance of this arrangement of meiosis, spore production and post-meiotic mitosis is discussed with respect to the taxonomy and life cycle of this unusual basidiomycete.

The utilization of naturally occurring yeasts by Drosophila species, using chemically defined substrates

The ability of three Drosophila species; Drosophila obscura, D. subobscura and D. phalerata, to utilize a range of naturally occurring yeasts as food sources was determined. The yeasts used were the dominant species of two commonly used breeding sites, Sorbus aucuparia fruits and the fruiting bodies of the fungus Phallus impudicus. The range of yeast species used was found to reflect the degree ot substrate specialization exhibited by these three species, with D. subobscura being broader niched than the other two species. There was an indication that D. phalerata was adapted to those yeasts normally found on its natural breeding site, Phallus impudicus. Many factors were found to affect the nutritional adequacy of the yeasts, including their growth period, the larval density, the presence of competitors and particularly the chemical composition of the basal growth medium.

The distribution and abundance of the British fungal‐breeding Drosophila

Abstract. The distribution and abundance of five Drosophila species breeding in fungi are examined by attracting adult flies to baited traps and collecting fungal fruit bodies containing the larval stages. Changes in species frequency follow a temporal (seasonal and yearly), rather than a spatial (between and within woods) pattern. There is a regular diurnal pattern of activity in D.subobscura but not in D.phalerata. Temperature, light intensity, humidity and wind speed have no effect upon the daily activity of D.phalerata. Only temperature affects the activity of D.subobscura. Out of 125 species of fungi collected, only forty‐eight species produced Drosophila. However, the flies are even more selective, since only five species of fungi (Phallus impudicus, Polyporus squamosus, Amanita rubescens, Pluteus cervinus and Lactarius quietus) produce 80% of all Drosophila reared. The commonest species, D.phalerata, has two or three generations per year with a winter diapause. An outline of the yearly life cycle is given, with the major breeding sites for each generation indicated. Measures of niche overlap calculated from the data on individual fruit bodies are very low, suggesting that the five species are effectively isolated during the larval period. This ecological isolation is achieved by a summation of several niche dimensions, woodlands, seasons, fungal species, and individual fruiting body differences.

Fungal colonization of hardwood stumps from natural sources: II. Basidiomycetes

Chemical treatment and tree species markedly influenced both the assemblage of basidiomycete species colonizing cut stumps of beech, birch and oak, and their pattern of colonization. Colonization by Phlebia merismoides was strongly promoted by treatment with 40% ammonium sulphamate (AMS), whilst, in oak, Hypholoma fasciculare and Phanerochaete velutina preferentially colonized water-treated controls, and in birch, Chondrostereum purpureum, was more frequent in stumps treated with 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) and controls, than in those treated with AMS. AMS treatment led to more extensive decay in stumps, especially in the outermost wood where fungi capable of subcortical mycelial growth, e.g. P. merismoides, H. fasciculare and P. velutina, often developed. In oak, decay caused by basidiomycetes extended rapidly down to the root-collar of AMS-treated stumps, but the roots remained uncolonized. In those treated with 2,4,5-T and in controls, colonization was restricted to the vicinity of the cut surface. In contrast, in birch and beech stumps treated with AMS, decay extended rapidly into the roots. In beech, after 2 1/2 years, cord-forming fungi such as Phallus impudicus and Phanerochaete velutina were frequently present. In birch, decay also developed in roots of controls.

Phallus impudicus L. (Stinkmorchel) in siedlungnahen Gehölzen als mögliche Quelle der Zuwanderung von Dipteren in den Siedlungsbereich

Phallus impudicus (stink-horn) as a source of moving of Diptera into settlements. In the kitchen-garden and the small wood adjacent of a Farm and the woods neighbouring researches have been made about the species of Diptera visiting the stink-horn (Phallus impudicus L.) of which the spores were spread by insects, specially by Diptera too. After some years suddenly in the small wood of the farm stink-horns appeared. This and other observations indicate probably a migration of different species of Diptera from the woods (and other Formations of Plants) of the neighbourhood to the Farm. The appearence ofPhallus near farms and settlements can be one of many ways to study the behaviour of migration and the origin of individuals of species of Diptera of practical importance not developped in the sphere of settlements, which are to be found near these and farms specially during calamities. These are problems of importance specially with refrence to Diptera vectors of diseases.

Occurrence of gibberellin-like growth substances in basidiomycete sporophores

Gibberellin-like activity was detected in extracts of various basidiomycete sporophores following chromatography and bioassay on d -5 dwarf maize. Free acidic substances were isolated from methanolic extracts of sporophores following partition against ethyl acetate, followed by paper chromatography using isopropanol:ammonia:water (10:1:1) as a solvent. A single compound R f 0·55 was found in Agaricus bisporus (J. Lange) Pilat (Agaricales), Phallus impudicus Linn, ex Pers. (Phallales) and Boletus elegans Schum. ex Fries (Agaricales (Boletaceae)). Two substances at R f 0·15 and 0·55, and R f 0·45 and 0·85 were found respectively in extracts of Phellinus pomaceus (Pers.) Maire and Grifola frondosa (Dicks ex Fr.) S. F. Gray (Aphyllophorales). Additional gibberellin-like activity (bound g.l.s. ) was obtained from sporo-phore extracts after exhaustive removal of free substances by digesting the dried residue with ficin, a plant protease. Single peaks of activity were found at R f 0·65 in Phallus impudicus, Grifola frondosa and Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds. ex Fr.) Kummer and at R f 0·35 in Phellinus pomaceus . The results suggest that gibberellin-like substances, contributed either by the fungus or by stimulated host synthesis, may be involved in the increased growth of the mycorrhizal host.

The Ascomycete Fungus, Daldinia concentrica as a Habitat for Animals

Comparatively little work has been done on particular species of fungi as habitats for insects and other invertebrates. Smith (1956) has studied Phallus impudicus (Linnaeus) Pers. and Paviour-Smith (1959, 1960a, b, 1965 and 1968) Polyporus betulinus (Bull.) Fr., while Pielou & Matthewman (1966) and Pielou & Verma (1968) have given complete lists of adult arthropods in P. betulinus and Fomes fomentarius (Linnaeus ex Fries) Kickx. from eastern Canada and Gatineau Park, Quebec, respectively. The information relating to fungi as habitats is discussed by Elton (1966). My account brings together for the first time the literature on the fauna of Ascomycetes and examines in detail the fauna of one particular ascomycete. Daldinia concentrica (Bolton ex Fries) Cesati & Notaris is an ascomycete belonging to the group Pyrenomycetes and the order Sphaeriales. Its fruiting bodies are black, carbonaceous, hemispherical stromata, sometimes reaching the size of a small apple. In Britain the fungus grows most commonly on ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.), but occasionally on beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), elm (Ulmus sp.), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.), London plane (Platanus x hybrida Brot.) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.). It is also found on birch (Betula pendula Roth), oak (Quercus robur L.) and gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) which have been scorched by fire. Brief references are made to its fauna in the literature. Donisthorpe (1935) names three beetles as specific to the fungus: Cryptophagus ruficornis (Stephens), Platyrhinus resinosus Scopoli and Biphyllus lunatus (Fabricius), and others including Mycetophagus atomarius Fabricius as being associated with it. Buxton (1960) gives the dipteran, Amiota alboguttata (Wahlberg) and Beirne (1952) the lepidopteran, Myelois neophanes Durrant, as being specific to this fungus. The present study attempts to assess the fungus as a habitat, describes two local variants of the fruiting body and lists over a hundred species found in about 1000 stromata examined from five different localities. It endeavours to relate the succession of animal life to the stages of development and decay of the fruiting body. Details are also given of the most important beetle species, Biphyllus lunatus. This is not intended to be a strictly quantitative study because of the problems involved in sampling.

Vegetative and fructifying growth in Phallus impudicus

Phallus impudicus has a rhizomorph system which can be separated from its matrix, thus providing an opportunity to study relations between fungal mycelium and fructification. Fine rhizomorph is composed mainly of longitudinal mycelium, and showed no disability in translocation of carbohydrate, fat, nitrogen, ash or total dry matter from rhizomorph to the relatively large fructification. Thick rhizomorph bore smaller fructifications with lower percentages of carbohydrate and nitrogen and, when it also became extensive, there was inadequate transport of all constituents from rhizomorph to the fructification, which apparently needs them quickly and in relatively large amounts. Thick rhizomorph is inefficient for longitudinal transport because it contains peripheral mycelium or consists of fine hyphae running in all directions. Some part of the ‘egg’, probably the mucilage, acts as a temporary reservoir of carbohydrate during the quick development of a fructification.

Jelly as a water-reserve in fungi

In Bulgaria inquinans spore discharge continues even when the drying gelatinous apothecium has lost four-fifths of its original weight. In Phallus impudicus evidence is given that the rapid elongation of the stalk involves a considerable increase in weight. In both these fungi the fruit-body is richly supplied with jelly. It is suggested that this represents a water reserve used for spore discharge in the first species and for stipe elongation in the other.

ON THE DIPTERA ASSOCIATED WITH THE STINKHORN {PHALLUS IMPUDICUS PERS.) WITH NOTES ON OTHER INSECTS AND INVERTEBRATES FOUND ON THIS FUNGUS.

Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Series A, General EntomologyVolume 31, Issue 4-6 p. 49-55 ON THE DIPTERA ASSOCIATED WITH THE STINKHORN {PHALLUS IMPUDICUS PERS.) WITH NOTES ON OTHER INSECTS AND INVERTEBRATES FOUND ON THIS FUNGUS. KENNETH G. V. SMITH M.I.Biol., F.R.E.S., KENNETH G. V. SMITH M.I.Biol., F.R.E.S. Hope Department of Entomology, University Museum, Oxford.Search for more papers by this author KENNETH G. V. SMITH M.I.Biol., F.R.E.S., KENNETH G. V. SMITH M.I.Biol., F.R.E.S. Hope Department of Entomology, University Museum, Oxford.Search for more papers by this author First published: June 1956 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1956.tb00206.xCitations: 9AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume31, Issue4-6June 1956Pages 49-55 RelatedInformation

Morphology and development of fungal Rhizomorphs

Rhizomorphs of sixteen species of Basidiomycetes were examined and graded into four groups: (i) largely undifferentiated ( Hymenogaster luteus, Merulius lacrymans ) ; (2) showing zones of similar hyphae arranged differently ( Hymeno-gaster tener, Collybia platyphylla ) ; (3) showing zones of hyphae of different sizes ( Flammula sapinea, Crucibulum vulgare, Cyathus striatus, Psalliota campestris, P. arvensis, Phallus impudicus, Hysterangium nephriticum ) ; and (4) some of the hyphae with thickened walls ( Lycoperdon pyriforme, L. gemmatum, Armillaria mellea, Marasmius androsaceus ). Rhizomorphs of Armillaria mellea grow best at 25 ° C. in a humid atmosphere in the dark. The optimum H-ion concentration for their development is pH 5·6. The range over which rhizomorphs develop (pH 3·6–8·0) is slightly narrower than that permitting mycelial growth (pH 3·1–8·8). The ratio of carbon to nitrogen has an effect on rhizomorph formation comparable to that on the development of certain sclerotia; a ratio of three to five parts of glucose to one part of either peptone or asparagine is the most favourable.

Studies in the Gasteromycetes—IX. the Genus, Itajahya in North America

This paper reports the discovery of the genus, Itajahya, in North America, discusses the genus, gives a description of the North American plants and records data on their distribution. While on a collecting trip during September, 1941, through the arid regions of Arizona and New Mexico, we found a phalloid which at a casual glance seemed to be a white form of Phallus impudicus; hence no special effort was made to collect many specimens. Later a closer study of the plant showed that it was not P. impudicus, but a form unknown to either of us. A special search was then made for as many specimens as we could find. We decided that it might be an Itajahya, but it seemed improbable that a tropical, wet climate plant could grow under such arid conditions.

SOME DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERS OF SPECIES OF LYCOPERDACEAE

Most of the papers on the Gasteromycetes treat them from the standpoint of taxonomy; only a few deal with their morphology and physiology. Of these a few are limited to the Lycoperdaceae. The first reported study of Gasteromycetes was that of Corda (i842), who simply described the germination of spores of Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode. under natural conditions. Sachs (i855) was unable to germinate spores of Crucibulum vulgare Tul. Hoffman (I859) described the germination of the spores of the following species: Lycoperdon echinatum Pers., Lycoperdon gemnm-itatum Batsch., Bovista plumbea Pers., and Cyathus striatus Willd. His later papers (i86oa, i8,6ob) reported his failure to duplicate his first experiments. De Bary in I863, although unable to germinate spores of Phallus impudicus L., gave us the first account of the development of Lycoperdon sp., Bovista plumbea, and Geaster hygrometricus Pers. (see De Bary, i887). Pitra (I870) experimentally verified the previous observations of Corda on Sphaerobolus stellatus. Eidam (i875, i876) produced an oidium-forming mycelium from spores of Crucibulum vulgare and Cyathus striatus. Hesse (i876) obtained a freely branching, oidium-producing mycelium from spores of Cyathus striatus which germinated in water after I8-24 hours. Brefeld ( I877) grew mycelium of unnamed species of Crucibulum and Cyathus from single spores until fruit bodies were formed; these fruit bodies apparently developed in the usual way, but remained empty and failed to mature. Rehsteiner (I 892) gave us the first critical study of species development, using Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch., Lycoperdon laxums Bon., Bovista plumnbea Pers., and Geaster fornicatus (Huds.) Fr. Rabinowitsch (I894) made a detailed study of Lycoperdon depressurn Bon. Ferguson (I9O2a, I902b) reported that she was unable to germinate spores of Gasteromycetes. Duggar (I9OI, I905) grew tissue cultures of several species, but did not report the formation of any fruit bodies. Molliard (1909), using an entire peridiole of Crucibulumn vulgare, eventually obtained the normal fruiting stage. He did not study the details of development. Cool (I9I2) reported her inability to germinate spores of Gasteromycetes. Cunningham published the details