Phacochoerus Africanus Research Articles

Seroprevalence ofMycobacterium bovisinfection in warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in bovine tuberculosis-endemic regions of South Africa

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M.bovis), has been reported in many species including suids. Wild boar are important maintenance hosts of the infection with other suids, that is domestic and feral pigs, being important spillover hosts in the Eurasian ecosystem and in South Africa, warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) may play a similar role in M.bovis-endemic areas. However, novel diagnostic tests for warthogs are required to investigate the epidemiology of bTB in this species. Recent studies have demonstrated that serological assays are capable of discriminating between M.bovis-infected and uninfected warthogs (Roos etal., ). In this study, an indirect ELISA utilizing M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPD) as a test antigen was used to measure the prevalence and investigate risk factors associated with infection in warthogs from uMhkuze Nature Reserve and the southern region of the Greater Kruger National Park (GKNP). There was a high overall seroprevalence of 38%, with adult warthogs having a higher risk of infection (46%). Seroprevalence also varied by geographic location with warthogs from Marloth Park in the GKNP having the greatest percentage of positive animals (63%). This study indicates that warthogs in M.bovis-endemic areas are at high risk of becoming infected with mycobacteria. Warthogs might present an under-recognized disease threat in multi-species systems. They might also serve as convenient sentinels for M.bovis in endemic areas. These findings highlight the importance of epidemiological studies in wildlife to understand the role each species plays in disease ecology.

Seasonality, crop type and crop phenology influence crop damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia

Wildlife species damaging crops can cause substantial losses to farmers and at the same time create negative attitudes against wildlife and conservation efforts that may result in negative interactions against wildlife and lead to human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). For the analysis of negative interactions between humans and terrestrial wildlife species, a globally applicable scheme for monitoring was developed and applied over 6 years in study areas of two Asian (Nepal and India) and two African (Zambia and Tanzania) countries. Factors influencing crop consumption by eight different groups of herbivores were monitored and analyzed using generalized linear models. Seasonality, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop seem to play an important role in the crop damaging behavior of herbivores. Crop consumers such as elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus), zebra (Equus quagga spp.) and boars/hogs (Sus scrofa, Potamocherus larvatus and Phacochoerus africanus) show preferences for harvested and/or maturing crops. Rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) and antelopes/deer (Taurotragus oryx, Aepyceros melampus, Boselaphus tragocamelus and Axis axis) damage the highest numbers of fields with crops at an intermediate growth stage. The findings of this study can inform management of HWCs in areas where people and wildlife coexist. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the benefits of standardized HWC assessments in order to compare data from different continents and between different species to be able to draw generalized conclusions for the management of HWC.

Changes in feeding behavior and patch use by herbivores in response to the introduction of a new predator

Top-order carnivores are naturally returning, or are being reintroduced, in a number of places where they have previously been extirpated. To explore how prey species adjust their antipredator behavior in response to these predators, we measured giving-up densities (GUDs) in experimental feeding patches and time spent vigilant for greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), and warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) before and after an introduction of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Before the introduction, the only predators in the system were cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). After the release, none of the prey species changed their microhabitat preference, in that they all preferred open grasslands to mixed tree and bush-clumps and bush-clumps. However, kudu and sable fed more intensively (i.e., achieved lower GUDs) and had lower vigilance in open grasslands, while reducing their feeding effort (i.e., higher GUDs) and increasing their vigilance near denser vegetation. When the wild dogs denned in the study site, potentially increasing contact with the prey species, the time kudu spent vigilant and their GUDs increased significantly across all patches, and continued to increase over time. In contrast, sable and warthogs stopped feeding from the experimental patches altogether during this period. The change in feeding intensity and vigilance levels by kudu likely reflected an additive antipredator response to both cheetahs and wild dogs, whereas sable and warthogs only responded to the increased risk from the wild dogs. Our results indicate that the addition of wild dogs influenced the foraging-safety trade-off for the 3 prey species, but that the antipredator behaviors utilized by these species to mitigate predation risk varied within the newly established 2-predator system.

Sympatry among Three Suid Species (Family Suidae) on the North Coast of Kenya

ABSTRACT Three species of suids occur on the broad coastal plain of Kenya east and north of the Tana River; desert warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus, common warthog Phacochoerus africanus, and bushpig Potamochoerus larvatus. Systematic cameratrap surveys, comprising 9229 camera-trap days on grids at six study sites, were used to determine the distribution and relative abundance of these three suids in the Boni-Dodori Forest Complex (ca. 4000 km2) and in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve (416 km2) on Kenya's north and central coasts, respectively. In the Boni-Dodori Forest Complex, desert warthog was captured at one camera site, common warthog at four camera sites, and bushpig at 33 camera sites. In Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve, only bushpig was captured (seven camera sites). Sympatry of desert warthog and common warthog seems limited in the Boni-Dodori Forest Complex. Here, desert warthog appears to be narrowly sympatric with bushpig whereas common warthog is broadly sympatric with bushpig. Sympatry of the th...

Antipredator behaviour of African ungulates around human settlements

AbstractAs human populations grow and come into more frequent contact with wildlife, it is important to understand how anthropogenic disturbance alters wildlife behaviour. Using fine‐scale spatial analyses, we examined how proximity to human settlements affects antipredator responses of ungulates. We studied seven common ungulate species (Kirk's dik‐dik, Thomson's gazelle, impala, common warthog, common wildebeest, common zebra and Masai giraffe) in the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem in northern Tanzania. In zebra and giraffe, flight responses to humans were significantly more likely when closer to settlements; however, there was a weak relationship between flight responses and distance to settlement in all other species. While there was largely a weak relationship between proximity to human settlements, the distribution of settlements in the landscape appears to affect wildlife behaviour, suggesting that animals perceive and respond to spatial variation in risk exerted by humans.

Influence of differently managed bush‐encroached sites on the large herbivore distribution in the Namibian Savannah

AbstractBush encroachment is reported from savannah regions worldwide. Different management strategies are used to rehabilitate these areas. In this context, the mutual interaction between vegetation and large herbivore's distribution is evident. We studied effects of land management on vegetation structure in regard to encroaching species and the subsequent habitat use of two grazing (oryx, Oryx gazella L.; common warthog, Phacochoerus africanusGmelin) and one browsing (greater kudu, Tragelaphus strepsicerosPallas) herbivore species. We assumed that (i) cleared areas will be favoured by grazers and (ii) noncleared areas will be favoured by browsers. Specifically, we asked: Which factors determine the habitat use of these different feeding guilds? Consistently with our expectations, we found that warthog favoured sites with high grass cover. For oryx, surprisingly shrubs with a height of 80–150 cm influenced their distribution positively, whereas for kudu, only the interaction of site and grass cover was significant in our models. However, this was related to the occurrence of shrubs of 80–150 cm height. We conclude that the management of encroachers, resulting in differences in vegetation, did not influence herbivore distribution as expected. Other factors like human impact and vegetation cover among others are discussed as additional drivers of habitat use.

Relative abundances and palaeoecology of four suid genera in the Turkana Basin, Kenya, during the late Miocene to Pleistocene

Most suids (Mammalia: Suidae, pigs) worldwide are omnivores living in closed environments, but the African warthog (Phacochoerus) has special adaptations for grazing in open environments. Similar specializations have been recorded from Plio-Pleistocene African suids. Four genera, Nyanzachoerus, Notochoerus, Kolpochoerus, and Metridiochoerus, have been discovered in late Miocene to middle Pleistocene locations around the Turkana Basin.We analyse the relative abundances of these four suid genera compared to other mammals, from approximately 8–0.7Ma. The dataset includes most of the mammal specimens collected from locations around the Kenyan side of the Turkana Basin. Species of genus Nyanzachoerus were dominant before 4Ma, but their relative abundance decreases through time thereafter. At the same time, Notochoerus increases in relative abundance, followed by Kolpochoerus, and finally Metridiochoerus. Their peak relative abundances do not overlap: Notochoerus peaks at 3.44–2.53Ma, Kolpochoerus at 2.53–1.87Ma, and Metridiochoerus at 1.38–0.7Ma.We interpret the palaeoecology of these suids based on their relative abundances over time and on published isotope and pollen data. We find that Nyanzachoerus was replaced by its abrasive-diet-specialized successor Notochoerus, possibly in response to a rapid decrease in forest cover. Notochoerus adapted at first to the expanding wood- and grasslands, and then to more arid shrublands. After a period of severe aridity around 2.7–2.5Ma, more variable environments allowed Kolpochoerus and Metridiochoerus to disperse, while Notochoerus disappeared, perhaps having lost its competitive edge. Further changes in the environment encouraged the expansion of grasslands over shrublands, favouring Metridiochoerus. Kolpochoerus persisted in the more closed environments near water sources.

<b>Population dynamics of medium and large mammals in a West African gallery forest area and the potential effects of poaching</b>

Few studies are available on the population dynamics of medium and large mammals in gallery forests of the Sudan and Sahel regions of West Africa. Line-transect studies of the abundance (estimated by KIA) of nine species of ungulates and three species of primates were carried out between 2004 and 2013 in the Comoé-Leraba protected area of Burkina Faso, West Africa. No peer-reviewed study of population sizes of mammals in this protected area has been published, making the data presented of special relevance. Population size trends varied significantly across years in both primates and ungulates, with some species (Papio anubis, Phacochoerus africanus, Alcelaphus busephalus and Tragelaphus scriptus) decreasing consistently. Significant relationships were observed between poaching intensity and population oscillations in Erythrocebus patas, Kobus ellipsiprymnus, Kobus kob, Ourebia ourebi and Cephalophus rufilatus.

Detection of interannual population trends in seven herbivores from a West African savannah: a comparison between dung counts and direct counts of individuals

AbstractIn West Africa, whether in forests or savannahs, most of the large mammal species have a scattered spatial distribution. Monitoring their population size represents a logistic, financial, theoretical challenge because counting of transects is not appropriate, unlike elsewhere in Africa. In this study, we (i) analyse the patterns of interannual (2006–2008) changes in population density of seven sympatric species of savannah herbivores in a protected area of Burkina Faso with two alternative methods: dung counts versus direct counts and (ii) quantify the economic costs for these two methods. The seven species of mammals we considered are the following:Hippotragus equinus, Alcelaphus busephalus, Sylvicapra grimmia, Tragelaphus scriptus, Ourebia ourebi, Kobus ellipsiprymnusandPhacochoerus africanus. A distance methodology was used to generate estimates with both methods. There were significant correlations between estimates of mammal density obtained using dung counts and direct counts, and an analysis of covariance revealed that the interannual trends in population densities were consistently detected with both methods. In addition, the dung count method costs 55% less. Thus, our study documents that dung counts can be used as a proxy of population size fluctuations for the seven studied species, offering a methodological alternative that is much less expensive, less sophisticated in terms of equipment compared to other methods and that can be performed by field staff with moderate professional qualification. We suggest that standardized campaigns of dung count surveys may be applied to all protected areas and savannah in Burkina Faso, West Africa, in order to improve evidence‐based, large‐scale conservation and management planning in the region.

Test performance of three serological assays for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in common warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus)

Sporadic cases of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) have been reported in warthogs in Southern Africa and confirmed through mycobacterial culture. However, there are no validated ante-mortem tests currently available for bTB in warthogs. In this study, we evaluated the use of three serological assays for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in warthogs; an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using bovine purified protein derivative (PPDb) as a capture antigen (indirect PPD ELISA), as well as two commercial assays, the TB ELISA-VK® and DPP® VetTB Assay. Test performance of these assays was compared using sera from 35 warthogs of known Mycobacterium bovis infection status. All three assays were able to distinguish M. bovis-infected from uninfected individuals with high sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) (indirect PPD ELISA Se: 88%, Sp: 89%; TB ELISA-VK® 88%, 79%; DPP® VetTB Assay 75%, 89%, respectively). The assays performed very similarly and the ELISA assays showed the greatest agreement (κ=0.89). These results indicate that M. bovis-infected warthogs develop measurable pathogen-specific humoral responses which can be used to distinguish them from uninfected animals. Therefore, serological assays have value as ante-mortem bTB diagnostic tests in warthogs.

Ecological Monitoring and Health Research in Luambe National Park, Zambia: Generation of Baseline Data Layers.

Classifying, describing and understanding the natural environment is an important element of studies of human, animal and ecosystem health, and baseline ecological data are commonly lacking in remote environments of the world. Human African trypanosomiasis is an important constraint on human well-being in sub-Saharan Africa, and spillover transmission occurs from the reservoir community of wild mammals. Here we use robust and repeatable methodology to generate baseline datasets on vegetation and mammal density to investigate the ecology of warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in the remote Luambe National Park in Zambia, in order to further our understanding of their interactions with tsetse (Glossina spp.) vectors of trypanosomiasis. Fuzzy set theory is used to produce an accurate landcover classification, and distance sampling techniques are applied to obtain species and habitat level density estimates for the most abundant wild mammals. The density of warthog burrows is also estimated and their spatial distribution mapped. The datasets generated provide an accurate baseline to further ecological and epidemiological understanding of disease systems such as trypanosomiasis. This study provides a reliable framework for ecological monitoring of wild mammal densities and vegetation composition in remote, relatively inaccessible environments.

Magnetic alignment in warthogs Phacochoerus africanus and wild boars Sus scrofa

AbstractMagnetic alignment (MA) results from the preference of animals to align themselves along the field lines of the geomagnetic field, a behavioural expression of a magnetic sense. MA is well documented for ruminants and might demonstrate a general magnetic sensory ability among artiodactyls. We measured body‐axis alignment in 1614 foraging or resting wild boars Sus scrofa, 1849 wild boar beds, and 1347 warthogs Phacochoerus africanus, and found a highly significant north–south preference. The magnetic field was the only common denominator of all observations. Thus, we provide the first data suggesting a magnetic sense in the Suidae.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of baboon (<i>Papio anubis</i>), warthog (<i>Phacochoerus africanus</i>) and waterbuck (<i>Kubus deffasa</i>) in Yankari game reserve, Bauchi state Nigeria

A total of ninety four (94) fresh faecal samples of baboons (Papio anubis), Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) and Waterbucks (Kubus deffasa) were collected from different strategic locations within Yankari Game Reserve in August, 2008. Samples were collected in sterilized specimen bottles containing 4% formalin and analyzed by simple floatation, sedimentation and concentration Mc master techniques. The sixty (63) fecal samples of baboons examined; 7(11.11%) had intestinal parasites, comprises of 260 (54.1%) metastrongylus eggs, 180 (37.50%) eggs of mites and 40 (8.33) of adult mites. A total of Seven 7 (28%) of the twenty five (25) fecal samples of warthogs had parasites which comprised of 4960 (98.0%) eggs of hyostrongylus eggs and 100 (2.0%) of monizia eggs. Only 2(33.3%) of the six (6) fecal samples of waterbucks had Hystrongylus eggs 180(1.1%).The infection rate was significantly higher (p<0.05) among Warthogs (98%) fallowed by Baboons (54.1%) and the least Waterbucks (1.1%). Exposure to posture may be the predisposing factor responsible for the prevalence rate recorded in the study area. This may posed a potential danger to visitors in Yankari Game Reserve and other wild animals. Implementation of control policy of helminthes parasites in the Reserve will reducethe prevalence of helminthes diseases.Key words: Baboon, Intestinal parasites, Waterbuck, Warthog, Yankari Game Reserve

Wild and Domestic Pig Interactions at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface of Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, and the Potential Association with African Swine Fever Outbreaks.

Bushpigs (BPs) (Potamochoerus larvatus) and warthogs (WHs) (Phacochoerus africanus), which are widely distributed in Eastern Africa, are likely to cohabitate in the same environment with domestic pigs (DPs), facilitating the transmission of shared pathogens. However, potential interactions between BP, WH, and DP, and the resulting potential circulation of infectious diseases have rarely been investigated in Africa to date. In order to understand the dynamics of such interactions and the potential influence of human behavior and husbandry practices on them, individual interviews (n = 233) and participatory rural appraisals (n = 11) were carried out among Ugandan pig farmers at the edge of Murchison Falls National Park, northern Uganda. In addition, as an example of possible implications of wild and DP interactions, non-linear multivariate analysis (multiple correspondence analyses) was used to investigate the potential association between the aforementioned factors (interactions and human behavior and practices) and farmer reported African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks. No direct interactions between wild pigs (WPs) and DP were reported in our study area. However, indirect interactions were described by 83 (35.6%) of the participants and were identified to be more common at water sources during the dry season. Equally, eight (3.4%) farmers declared exposing their DP to raw hunting leftovers of WPs. The exploratory analysis performed suggested possible associations between the farmer reported ASF outbreaks and indirect interactions, free-range housing systems, dry season, and having a WH burrow less than 3 km from the household. Our study was useful to gather local knowledge and to identify knowledge gaps about potential interactions between wild and DP in this area. This information could be useful to facilitate the design of future observational studies to better understand the potential transmission of pathogens between wild and DPs.

Interspecific association in ungulates of the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

AbstractThe aim of the study was to determine the frequencies of interspecific association formation and species preferences among five ungulates [bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Menelik's bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) and mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni)] in the northern Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Data were collected in three forest patches and in open grassland using total count technique in 2009 and 2011. The total number of ungulate groups found in interspecific associations was 444, comprising 26.8% of the total 1657 groups recorded. For the five study species, the relative frequency with which a given species occurred in interspecific association deviated significantly from the expected mean relative frequency (i.e. 26.8%). Each study species showed preferences to form interspecific associations with one or two other species. Interspecific association formation increased mean group sizes for bohor reedbuck and mountain nyala. And most of the species had greater overall mean group sizes in the open habitat compared to forest habitat. In general, the association pattern reported here could be attributed to antipredator response and/or mutual grazing facilitation, which might be beneficial to one or all of the species involved.

Farmers' perceptions of the extra‐limital common warthog in the Northern Cape and free state provinces, South Africa

ABSTRACTThe common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) has been extra‐limitally introduced onto various farms and reserves in parts of the Northern Cape and Free State provinces of South Africa. Warthogs are considered as a game animal for wildlife tourism and hunting but are a known agricultural pest in their natural range. We investigated the perceptions, attitudes, and actions of farmers and landowners toward the common warthog on their farms. We identified participants using the Snowball technique and interviewed them during semistructured personal interviews, conducted from June to October 2012, using a standardized questionnaire. Most farmers and landowners were of the opinion that warthogs were introduced to the area and considered warthog populations to be increasing. Warthogs were held responsible for causing damage to aspects of the natural and agricultural environment, and respondents were increasingly negative toward warthogs as the levels of perceived damages increased. There were, however, also a number of respondents who regarded and utilized the species as a game animal. The majority of respondents hunted warthogs and utilized their meat for consumption; therefore, the study proposes that scientifically based hunting efforts for meat production be implemented to control population numbers and mitigate negative impacts experienced. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) Meat

The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) has been introduced to parts of South Africa outside of its known range. The species is considered an agricultural pest and a threat to the natural environment. As some farmers are employing a shoot on sight strategy, our study aimed to investigate the physical and chemical characteristics of warthog meat according to sex. Five muscles from male warthogs had higher shear force values (i.e. were less tender) compared to females. Allmuscles had a total protein content >20% and total lipid content ≤2.2%. The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids of the Longissimus lumborum muscle was <0.45. We also provide descriptive data on the characteristics of carcass yields and meat from juvenile sows and boars. It is suggested that warthog meat should be produced and marketed as whole muscle cuts and not as the typical commercial cuts used for domestic animals.

Comparative analyses of the chemical and sensory parameters and consumer preference of a semi-dried smoked meat product (cabanossi) produced with warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and domestic pork meat

The study compared the chemical and sensory characteristics and consumer preference of a semi-dried, cured meat product, cabanossi, produced with warthog meat and with domestic pork. The warthog and pork cabanossi had similar total moisture (59.0%±2.07 and 54.3%±1.26) and protein (26.3%±2.20 and 24.2%±2.15) contents, while the warthog cabanossi was lower in total fat content (6.9%±1.01) compared to pork cabanossi (13.7%±1.77, P=0.007). Descriptive sensory analysis found that the warthog cabanossi appeared darker red (P=0.001) and less fatty (P=0.001), while the pork cabanossi had a higher overall pork flavour (P=0.001). There were no differences in consumer preference of the appearance and taste between the two types of cabanossi, while the majority of consumers (91%) supported the use of game meat in meat products. The study concluded that warthog meat can be used in processed products without compromising the associated technical or organoleptic properties.

Large mammals in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania, dig for water when water stops flowing and water bacterial load increases

As water is essential for life, animals have adaptations that increase their ability to survive during periods of water shortage. Accessing water by digging is one behavioural adaptation to water shortage used by some African mammals. Digging might also provide access to higher quality water below ground when surface water quality is poor. We investigated the digging of waterholes by wildlife in the Ruaha National Park (NP), in central Tanzania, during three dry seasons (June to November from 2011 to 2013). We monitored surface water availability and water quality at 10 sites along the Great Ruaha River (GRR) and eight non-GRR sites. We used camera-traps and direct observations to determine when and where digging to access water occurred. Elephant (Loxodonta africana), plains zebra (Equus quagga), warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) dug waterholes and a further four species drunk from these holes. Waterholes were dug later in the dry season along the GRR (October) than at other sites (July). The likelihood of digging and drinking from waterholes was lower along the GRR than at non-GRR sites and did not depend on the absence of surface water but increased when surface water stopped flowing. Digging of waterholes was also significantly more likely when the bacterial load in available surface water increased but was independent of salinity levels. Escherichia coli load, indicative of faecal contamination, significantly increased with total aerobic bacterial load. Our results suggest that digging is an adaptation to avoid the ingestion of poor quality surface water highly contaminated with faeces, and thereby possibly also potentially pathogenic microbes, in addition to providing access to water when surface water is absent. Our findings also highlight (1) the essential role of the GRR as the key water source for wildlife in the Ruaha NP during the dry season, and (2) that maintenance of water flow throughout the dry season is essential to prevent deterioration of water quality in the GRR.

New insights into the role of ticks in African swine fever epidemiology.

African swine fever (ASF), one of the most important diseases of swine, is present in many African countries, as well as in eastern Europe, Russia and Sardinia. It is caused by a complex virus, ASF virus (ASFV), for which neither vaccine nor treatment is available. ASFV affects swine of all breeds and ages, and also replicates in soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros, facilitating ASFV persistence and reocurrence of disease. Depending on the involvement of these ticks, and the presence or not of sylvatic asymptomatic animals, several epidemiological cycles have been identified. The disease persists in East and southern African countries in a sylvatic cycle between O. porcinus (of the O. moubata species complex) and common warthogs. In some countries a domestic pig-tick cycle exists, whereas in other regions, notably West Africa, the role of soft ticks has not been demonstrated, and ASFV is transmitted between domestic pigs in the absence of tick vectors. Even in several East and Central African countries which have the sylvatic or domestic cycle, the majority of outbreaks are not associated with ticks or wild suids. In Europe, O. erraticus was detected and identified as a crucial vector for ASF maintenance in outdoor pig production on the Iberian Peninsula. However, in most parts of Europe, there is a lack of information about the distribution and role of Ornithodoros ticks in ASF persistence, particularly in eastern regions. This article reviews ASF epidemiology and its main characteristics, with a special focus on the distribution and role of soft ticks in ASF persistence in different settings. Information abouttick detection, control measures and future directions for research is also included.