pH-responsive Core Research Articles

PH-responsive dual fluorescent core–shell microspheres fabricated via a one-step emulsion polymerization

Dual fluorescent core–shell microspheres with pH-responsive fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) properties were fabricated via a one-step emulsion polymerization. The hydrophobic dye perylene and a hydrophilic fluorescein derivative were designed as donor and acceptor to realize the FRET from the core to the shell of the microspheres under alkaline conditions. Fluorescence spectra, lifetime and confocal images were used to characterize the observed pH-responsive FRET properties. The facile fabrication and controlled FRET of the microspheres will facilitate their applications in a wide variety of fields such as multicolor bio-labeling, high resolution spatial pH displays and optical devices.

“Hydrothermal wrapping” with poly(4-vinylpyridine) introduces functionality: pH-sensitive core–shell carbon nanomaterials

Negatively charged carbon nanoparticles (surface-phenylsulfonated) are “wrapped” in a poly(4-vinylpyridine) cationomer and hydrothermally converted into a pH-responsive core–shell nano-composite. With a “thin shell” this nano-material (ca. 20–40 nm diameter) is water-insoluble but readily dispersed into ethanol and deposited onto electrodes. Zeta-potential measurements suggest a point of zero charge (PZC) at ca. pH 4.5 with negative functional groups dominating in the more alkaline range and positive functional groups dominating in the acidic range. XPS data suggest carboxylate and pyridinium-like functional groups. This is further confirmed in voltammetric measurements for adsorbed cations (methylene blue) and adsorbed anions (indigo carmine). The specific capacitance reaches a maximum of 13 F g−1 at the PZC explained here tentatively by a “shell charging” effect within the nanoparticle shell.

Synergistically Enhance Magnetic Resonance/Fluorescence Imaging Performance of Responsive Polymeric Nanoparticles Under Mildly Acidic Biological Milieu

Core cross-linked (CCL) polymeric micelles covalently labeled with DOTA(Gd) and green- emitting NBD fluorophores within pH-responsive cores are fabricated, which can serve as a dual-modality MR/fluorescence imaging system and exhibit mildly acidic pH-triggered turn-on or enhancement of signal intensities for both imaging modalities. Compared to non-crosslinked diblock precursor, CCL micelles demonstrate better MR and fluorescence imaging performance due to structural stability and integrity endowed by the core cross-linking procedure. Furthermore, selective enhancement of MR/fluorescence imaging signal intensities of the dual-modality imaging system can also be actuated under specific intracellular microenvironments such as mildly acidic organelles.

Anti-CD22 Antibody Targeting of pH-responsive Micelles Enhances Small Interfering RNA Delivery and Gene Silencing in Lymphoma Cells

The application of small interfering RNA (siRNA) for cancer treatment is a promising strategy currently being explored in early phase clinical trials. However, efficient systemic delivery limits clinical implementation. We developed and tested a novel delivery system comprised of (i) an internalizing streptavidin-conjugated monoclonal antibody (mAb-SA) directed against CD22 and (ii) a biotinylated diblock copolymer containing both a positively charged siRNA condensing block and a pH-responsive block to facilitate endosome release. The modular design of the carrier facilitates the exchange of different targeting moieties and siRNAs to permit its usage in a variety of tumor types. The polymer was synthesized using the reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) technique and formed micelles capable of binding siRNA and mAb-SA. A hemolysis assay confirmed the predicted membrane destabilizing activity of the polymer under acidic conditions typical of the endosomal compartment. Enhanced siRNA uptake was demonstrated in DoHH2 lymphoma and transduced HeLa-R cells expressing CD22 but not in CD22 negative HeLa-R cells. Gene knockdown was significantly improved with CD22-targeted vs. nontargeted polymeric micelles. Treatment of DoHH2 cells with CD22-targeted polymeric micelles containing 15nmol/l siRNA produced 70% reduction of gene expression. This CD22-targeted polymer carrier may be useful for siRNA delivery to lymphoma cells.

Stable and pH-responsive core–shell nanoparticles based on HEC and PMAA networks via template copolymerization

Taking advantage of the specific hydrogen bonding interactions, stable and pH-responsive core–shell nanoparticles based on hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and polymethacrylic acid (PMAA) networks, with a 〈D h 〉 size ranging from 190 to 250 nm, can be efficiently prepared via facile one-step co-polymerization of methacrylic acid (MAA) and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) on HEC template in water. Using dynamic light scattering, electrophoretic light scattering, fluorescence spectrometry, thermo-gravimetric analysis, TEM, and AFM observations, the influence of crosslinker MBA as well as the reaction parameters were studied. The results show that after the introduction of crosslinker MBA, the nanoparticles became less compact; their size exhibited a smaller pH sensitivity, and their stability against pH value was improved greatly. Furthermore, the size, structure, and pH response of the nanoparticles can be adjusted via varying the reaction parameters: nanoparticles of smaller size, more compact structure, and higher swelling capacity were produced as pH value of the reaction medium increased or the HEC/MAA ratio decreased; while nanoparticles of smaller size, less compact structure and smaller swelling capacity were produced as the total feeding concentration increased.

Preparation and Characterization of a pH-Responsive Core Cross-linked Polymer Micelle

Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(2-(diethylamino) ethyl methacrylate-co-2-cinnamoyl-oxyethyl acrylate) (PEG-b-P(DEA/CEA)) was prepared by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) controlled radical polymerization. pH-responsive association behaviour of PEG-b-P(DEA/CEA) in 0.1 M NaCl was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS). As solution pH is increased from an acidic pH, the hydrodynamic radius (Rh) increases, indicative of the polymer micelle formation. The formation of a micelle was also supported by static light scattering (SLS) data. The cinnamoyl groups in the core of the polymer micelle undergo photodimerization, yielding cross-links between polymer chains. The core of the polymer micelle was fixed, which was confirmed by DLS, SLS, and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques. When pH is decreased to 3, Rh of the core cross-linked (CCL) polymer micelle slightly increases due to the protonation of the DEA unit in the cross-linked core. The reversible pH-induced swelling and shrinking behaviour can be observed.

Hydrogen-bonded layer-by-layer films of block copolymer micelles with pH-responsive cores

We report on construction of hydrogen-bonded monolayers and multilayers of micelles of the poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)- block-poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PDEA- b-PNIPAM) with PNIPAM-corona and polybasic PDEA cores. Films were constructed at pH 7.5 and 25 °C to assure the deposition of PDEA- b-PNIPAM in the micellar form. When monolayers of block copolymer micelles (BCMs) were exposed to moderately acidic pH values, micellar cores dissolved, while PDEA- b-PNIPAM remained adsorbed at the surface as unimers. In contrast to reversible micellization of PDEA- b-PNIPAM in solution, micelle-to-unimer transition was irreversible at the surface. Adsorption of a layer of tannic acid (TA) or polyethacrylic acid (PEAA) on top of BCM monolayers inhibited pH-triggered morphological changes within adsorbed BCMs. By taking advantage of the high p K a values of TA and PEAA, we were also able to construct multilayers of PDEA- b-PNIPAM micelles through hydrogen bonding interactions between micellar PNIPAM coronas and TA or PEAA. Similar to BCM monolayers coated with TA or PEAA, dissolution of BCMs was also inhibited when incorporated within hydrogen-bonded multilayers. Such inhibition of dissolution is due to enhanced hydrogen bonding interactions between coronal PNIPAM chains and protonated TA molecules or PEAA chains at decreasing pH values restricting the pH-induced conformational changes of the micellar core chains within the adsorbed layer. Films of responsive BCMs are attractive coatings for controlled delivery of functional molecules from surfaces due to a combination of stimuli-response properties with the relatively high loading capacity for functional molecules.

Dendritic Polyglycerols with Oligoamine Shells Show Low Toxicity and High siRNA Transfection Efficiency in Vitro

RNA interference provides great opportunities for treating diseases from genetic disorders, infection, and cancer. The successful application of small interference RNA (siRNA) in cells with high transfection efficiency and low cytotoxicity is, however, a major challenge in gene-mediated therapy. Several pH-responsive core shell architectures have been designed that contain a nitrogen shell motif and a polyglycerol core, which has been prepared by a two-step protocol involving the activation of primary and secondary hydroxyl groups by phenyl chloroformate and amine substitution. Each polymer was analyzed by particle size and ζ potential measurements, whereas the respective polyplex formation was determined by ethidium bromide displacement assay, atomic force microscopy (AFM), and surface charge analysis. The in vitro gene silencing properties of the different polymers were evaluated by using a human epithelial carcinoma cell (HeLaS3) line with different proteins (Lamin, CDC2, MAPK2). Polyplexes yielded similar knockdown efficiencies as HiPerFect controls, with comparably low cytotoxicity. Therefore, these efficient and highly biocompatible dendritic polyamines are promising candidates for siRNA delivery in vivo.

Cytosolic Delivery Mediated via Electrostatic Surface Binding of Protein, Virus, or siRNA Cargos to pH-Responsive Core−Shell Gel Particles

We recently described a strategy for intracellular delivery of macromolecules, utilizing pH-responsive "core-shell" structured gel particles. These cross-linked hydrogel particles disrupt endosomes with low toxicity by virtue of physical sequestration of an endosome-disrupting "proton sponge" core inside a nontoxic hydrophilic shell. Here we tested the efficacy of this system for cytosolic delivery of a broad range of macromolecular cargos, and demonstrate the delivery of proteins, whole viral particles, or siRNA oligonucleotides into the cytosol of dendritic cells and epithelial cells via core-shell particles. We assessed the functional impact of particle delivery for vaccine applications and found that cytosolic delivery of protein antigens in dendritic cells via the core-shell particles promotes priming of CD8(+) T-cells at 100-fold lower doses than soluble protein. Functional gene knockdown following delivery of siRNA using the particles was demonstrated in epithelial cells. Based on these findings, these materials may be of interest for a broad range of biomedical applications.

Poly(vinylpyridine) Core/Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) Shell Microgel Particles: Their Characterization and the Uptake and Release of an Anionic Surfactant

The use of microgel particles for controlled uptake and release of active species has great potential. The compatibility of microgel particles with their environment and the functionality of the particles can be achieved by modification of the core microgel through the addition of a shell. In this work, core-shell microgel particles, with a pH-responsive core (polyvinylpyridine) and a temperature-responsive shell (poly-N-isopropylacrylamide), have been prepared and characterized. The uptake and release of an anionic surfactant from the microgels has been investigated as a function of solution pH and temperature. The results indicate that electrostatic attraction between the anionic surfactant and the cationically charged core of the microgel particles is the dominant mechanism for absorption of the surfactant into the core-shell microgel particles.

Development of pH-responsive core–shell nanocarriers for delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents

In this paper new dendritic core–shell architectures with pH-labile linkers based on hyperbranched polyglycerol cores and biocompatible poly(ethylene glycol) shells were synthesized which encapsulate the anticancer agent doxorubicin and a dye for near-infrared imaging, an indotricarbocyanine. Acid-sensitive properties of the new nanocarriers and in vitro cytotoxicity of the doxorubicin-nanocarrier are presented as well as preliminary data regarding their toxicity and tumor targeting potential in nude mice.

Effects of three crosslinkers on colored pH‐responsive core–shell latexes

AbstractEnvironmentally responsive hydrogels have become attractive research subjects for many applications. In this work, a series of pH‐sensitive and color‐changing nanoparticles (nanogels) with core–shell structures were synthesized. The cores were blue latex particles synthesized by a miniemulsion technique with styrene and methacrylic acid as monomers and Neozapon Blue 807 as a dye. The shell was a pH‐sensitive polymer that was precipitation‐polymerized onto the core from 2‐(diethylamino) ethyl methacrylate with N,N′‐methylenebisacrylamide, poly(propylene glycol) diacrylate, and divinylbenzene as crosslinking agents. In the resultant latexes, the color was observed to change from deep blue to pale blue as the pH of the system was changed from a high of 10 to a low of 3. The synthesized latexes and particles (gels) were then characterized with an ultraviolet–visible spectrometer, dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance. Atomic force microscopy was also used to investigate the different morphologies of the particles after the synthesized latexes were dried at different pH values. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008

Cytosolic Delivery of Membrane-Impermeable Molecules in Dendritic Cells Using pH-Responsive Core−Shell Nanoparticles

Polycations that absorb protons in response to the acidification of endosomes can theoretically disrupt these vesicles via the "proton sponge" effect. To exploit this mechanism, we created nanoparticles with a segregated core-shell structure for efficient, noncytotoxic intracellular drug delivery. Cross-linked polymer nanoparticles were synthesized with a pH-responsive core and hydrophilic charged shell designed to disrupt endosomes and mediate drug/cell binding, respectively. By sequestering the relatively hydrophobic pH-responsive core component within a more hydrophilic pH-insensitive shell, nontoxic delivery of small molecules and proteins to the cytosol was achieved in dendritic cells, a key cell type of interest in the context of vaccines and immunotherapy.

UV Irradiation-Induced Shell Cross-Linked Micelles with pH-Responsive Cores Using ABC Triblock Copolymers

A triblock copolymer, poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(glycerol monomethacrylate)-b-poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PEG−PGMA−PDEA), was synthesized via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) by successive polymerization of glycerol monomethacrylate (GMA) and 2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DEA) using a PEG-based ATRP macroinitiator. Reacting the obtained triblock copolymer with varying amounts of cinnamoyl chloride in anhydrous pyridine yielded PEG−(PCGMA-co-PGMA)−PDEA triblock copolymer with photo-cross-linkable moieties, where PCGMA is poly(3-cinnamoyl glycerol monomethacrylate) and the mean degree of cinnamoylation ranges from 5 to 50 mol % relative to the PGMA block. All PEG−(PCGMA-co-PGMA)−PDEA triblock copolymers molecularly dissolve in aqueous media at acidic pH; upon addition of NaOH, micellization occurred above pH 7−8 to form three-layer “onionlike” micelles comprising PDEA cores, PCGMA-co-PGMA inner shells, and PEG outer coronas. The pH-induced micellization kinetics of PEG113−(C...

Double-responsive core–shell–corona micelles from self-assembly of diblock copolymer of poly(t-butyl acrylate-co-acrylic acid)-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)

Self-assembly of poly(t-butyl acrylate-co-acrylic acid)-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) [P(tBA-co-AA)-b-PNIPAM], which was obtained from part hydrolysis of PtBA-b-PNIPAM synthesized by sequential atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was studied. Thermo- and pH-responsive core–shell–corona (CSC) micelles with different structures were formed from (PtBA-co-PAA)-b-PNIPAM in aqueous solution. At pH 5.8 and 25°C, the block copolymer self-assembled into spherical core–shell micelles with hydrophobic PtBA segments as the core, hydrophilic PAA/PNIPAM segments as the mixed shell. Increasing temperatures, core–shell micelles converted into CSC micelles with PtBA as the core, collapsed PNIPAM as the shell and soluble PAA as the corona. Moreover, decreasing pH at 25°C, PAA chains collapsed onto the core resulting in CSC micelles with PtBA as the core, PAA as the shell and PNIPAM as the corona.

Microstructure and rheological properties of pH-responsive core–shell particles

The microstructure and rheological properties of core–shell pH-responsive microgels consisting of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) particles grafted with a soft layer of methacrylic acid–ethyl acrylate (MAA–EA) cross-linked with di-allyl phthalate (DAP) were examined using dynamic light scattering and rheological techniques. The validity and limitation of the semi-empirical approach to model charged soft microgel particles developed by our group were tested on this core–shell system. The viscosity data for three different core–shell particles showed excellent agreement with the modified Krieger–Dougherty (K–D) model. Good agreement was also observed when our semi-empirical approach was compared against a theoretical model, which confirmed the validity of the semi-empirical approach to model charged soft particles. In addition, we confirmed that the new scaling law which relates the swelling ratio Q of microgels as a function of neutralization degree, α, average number of monomers between two cross-links, N x , molar fraction of acidic units, y and concentration of mobile counter-ions, C K + and C Na + , represented as ( N x / c 0 ) ( C K + + C Na + ) Q + Q 2 / 3 is proportional to yN x α. All the core–shell data at varying ionic strength and mobile counter-ions concentrations fall onto a master curve.

PH-Responsive Core−Shell Particles and Hollow Spheres Attained by Macromolecular Self-Assembly

According to our "block-copolymer-free" strategy for self-assembly of polymers, noncovalently connected micelles (NCCM) with poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) as the core and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) as the shell in aqueous solutions were attained due to specific interactions between the component polymers. The micellar structure was then locked in by the reaction of PAA with diamine. Afterward, hollow spheres based on PAA network were obtained by either core degradation with lipase or core dissolution with dimethylformamide of the cross-linked micelles. The cavitation process was monitored by dynamic light scattering, which indicated a mass decrease and size expansion. The hollow structure is confirmed by transmission electron microscopy observations. The resultant hollow spheres are pH- and salt-responsive: there is a substantial volume increase when pH changes from acid to base, and vice versa. The volume change takes place dramatically over the pH-range from 5.8 to 7.5. Furthermore, this volume-pH-dependence is found to be completely reversible provided the effect of ionic strength is excluded. The volume change can be adjusted by changing the shell thickness and the cross-linking degree of the hollow spheres. The salt effect on the hollow sphere size depends on pH: with increasing salt concentration the size shows an increase, a decrease, and a little change in acidic, basic, and neutral media, respectively.

Patterned dual pH-responsive core-shell hydrogels with controllable swelling kinetics and volumes.

Dual pH-responsive core-shell hydrogels containing both a vinyl pyridine component and a 2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate component were prepared using an in situ photopolymerization process. Complementary photomasks were utilized to prepare hydrogels with core/shell volume ratios of 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2. Depending on the location of each polymer component, dramatically different swelling profiles were achieved. Selective swelling of the shell followed by the core components allowed the hydrogel to expand with the usual kinetics; however, by switching the location of each polymer component and swelling the core first, swelling rates decreased by over 1 order of magnitude and were dependent on the shell component's volume. The ability to pattern core/shell volumes also provided the ability to fabricate hydrogels that possess a constant maximum diameter but different cutoff points between its first and its second transition volumes. These materials may be of interest for controlled release applications.

Shell-Restricted Swelling and Core Compression in Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) Core−Shell Microgels

We report on an investigation of the structural relationship between the core and shell components in stimuli-sensitive core/shell microgels. Photon correlation spectroscopy measurements indicate that the presence of the shell alters the extent of core swelling. Core particles composed of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (pNIPAm-co-AAc) undergo volume changes as a function of temperature and pH, where deprotonation of the acidic sites results in a volume increase (particle swelling). The addition of a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAm) shell restricts the core from swelling to its native volume both above and below the pKa of acrylic acid. Furthermore, the pH responsive core undergoes only small temperature-induced volume changes above the characteristic lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of pNIPAm (31 °C) at pH values where the acid groups are fully deprotonated. The addition of a pNIPAm shell results in compression of the core and induces a large volume change at the pNIPAm LCST. Th...

Synthesis of Shell Cross-Linked Micelles with pH-Responsive Cores Using ABC Triblock Copolymers

A series of well-defined poly[(ethylene oxide)-block-2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate-block-2-(diethylamino) methacrylate] (PEO−DMA−DEA) triblocks were synthesized by successive ATRP polymerization of DMA and DEA monomers using PEO-based macroinitiators of different molecular weights. These triblock copolymers dissolved molecularly in aqueous solution at low pH; on addition of NaOH, micellization occurred at pH 7.1 to form three-layer “onionlike” micelles comprising DEA cores, DMA inner shells, and PEO coronas. Above pH 7.3, dynamic light scattering studies indicated unimodal, near-monodisperse populations, with mean micelle diameters of 27−84 nm depending on block compositions (for PEO113 triblock copolymers) and polydispersities typically less than 0.10. The average hydrodynamic diameter Dh of the micelles decreased as the solution pH was increased from pH 7.3 to pH 9.0, indicating that the micelles become more compact due to deprotonation of the tertiary amine residues in the DMA and DEA blocks. 1H NMR studies supported a three-layer micelle structure and also revealed changes in the hydrophilicity of the DMA chains in the inner shell during cross-linking, which was achieved by adding the bifunctional alkyl iodide, 1,2-bis(2-iodoethoxy)ethane (BIEE). Selective quaternization of the DMA residues by the BIEE leads to increased hydrophilicity and colloid stability for the shell cross-linked (SCL) micelles. The minimum amount of BIEE required to “lock-in” the micellar structure depended on the thickness of the PEO corona: shorter PEO chains led to enhanced cross-linking efficiency. At pH 8.5, the hydrodynamic diameter of un-cross-linked micelles increased rapidly above 40−50 °C due to the LCST behavior of the neutral DMA chains in the inner shell. In contrast, the dimensions of the SCL micelles in dilute aqueous solution are independent of temperature. These SCL micelles exhibit reversible swelling on varying the solution pH. At low pH, the DEA cores become protonated and hence hydrophilic. The effect of varying the block composition and the target degree of cross-linking on the structural stability and pH-dependent (de)swelling of the SCL micelles was systematically studied. Longer DEA blocks and lower target degrees of cross-linking led to increased swellability, as expected.