Optimum pH For Activity Research Articles

High-yield production and characterization of α-galactosidase from Bifidobacterium breve grown on raffinose

Bifidobacteria assimilated raffinose about 4-fold more effectively than other intestinal bacteria, and α-galactosidase was active in all strains of Bifidobacteria tested. The enzyme activity of Bifidobacterium breve grown on raffinose was highly and specifically increased. Its activity was 30-fold higher than that of B. breve grown on glucose. Melibiose was also effective for production of the enzyme. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity from B. breve. It is a homodimer with Mr of about 160 kDa, and its optimum pH for activity of 5.5–6.5. The enzyme showed strict substrate specificity for α-galactoside although it had slight activity for α-glucoside. It hydrolysed stachyose, melibiose (Km = 2 mM) and raffinose (Km = 0.7 mM).

The first description of an archaeal hemicellulase: the xylanase from Thermococcus zilligii strain AN1.

A xylanase has been found in the archaeon Thermococcus zilligii strain AN1 (DSM 2770), which grows optimally at 75 degrees C. The enzyme had a molecular mass of 95 kDa and a unique N-terminal sequence. It had activity against all five xylans tested and against xylose oligomers, but not against other carbohydrate polymers. The K(m) values found for xylans were typical of those found for bacterial xylanases. The pH optimum for activity was pH 6, and the enzyme half-life at 100 degrees C was 8 min. This is the first description of any archaeal hemicellulase.

Structure of acutolysin-C, a haemorrhagic toxin from the venom of Agkistrodon acutus, providing further evidence for the mechanism of the pH-dependent proteolytic reaction of zinc metalloproteinases.

The structure of acutolysin-C, a haemorrhagic zinc metalloproteinase from the venom of Agkistrodon acutus, has been analyzed and refined at 2.2 A resolution. The space group of the crystal is P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell dimensions a = 46.84, b = 49.52, c = 95.34 A. One molecule was found in each asymmetric unit. The phasing problem was solved by the molecular-replacement program AMoRe. Crystallographic refinement was performed using X-PLOR, leading to final R and free R factors of 0.176 and 0.272, respectively. The residue sequence of acutolysin-C was determined mainly by electron density. No density was found for the first residue at the N--terminus and the last two residues at the C-terminus, which was also the case for most other P-I class snake-venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). Acutolysin-C has two highly conserved characteristic sequences His142-Glu143-X-X-His146-X-X-Gly149-X-X-His15 2 and Cys162-Ile163-Met164. The enzyme has three disulfide bridges: Cys117-Cys195, Cys157-Cys179 and Cys159-Cys162. The entire structure shows good agreement with that of other reported P-I class SVMPs and has two subdomains with a cleft in which one catalytic zinc ion is localized. However, the local conformation (especially the disulfide configurations), the coordination of the catalytic water molecules and some residue side chains differ compared with other P-I class SVMPs. The proteolytic activities of SVMPs are sensitive to the pH value. The molecular superpositions around the proteolytic active sites of all the P-I class SVMP crystal structures show that the distances between the zinc ion and its ligands are not correlated with the crystallization pH values, although the contact distances between the catalytic water molecule and the O atoms of the Glu143 carboxylate group in the neutral and weakly alkaline structures are shorter than those in weakly acidic structures, and the closer the crystallization pH value of one enzyme is to its optimal activity pH value, the shorter the contact distances. Overall, all P-I class SVMPs have similar conformations in the active-site cleft. The size of the active site is not correlated with the crystallization pH values or the proteolytic activities. The disulfide bridge Cys117-Cys195 is conserved in all crystal structures of P-I class SVMPs, whereas the conformation and number of disulfide bridges in the C-terminal subdomain differ. Acutolysin-C has no structural calcium ion, which may not affect the proteolytic activity or haemorrhagic activity directly.

PURIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF TWO ACID PEROXIDASES FROM BRUSSELS SPROUTS (Brassica oleraceae L.)

An acid peroxidase isoenzyme (A1) from Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleraceae L.) has been purified while another isoenzyme (A2) has been partially purified. Studies of their properties leading to a potential application in immunoassays as an alternative to horseradish peroxidase were conducted. Isoenzyme Al was purified 503 fold, through ammonium sulfate and acetone fractionation, and successive chromatography on DEAE-cellulose, Sephadex G-100 and Mono-S (FPLC system) columns. Isoenzyme A1 had a pI of 4.0, a molecular weight of 90 kDa, and contained two identical molecular weight subunits. Preliminary studies indicated a pI of 4.7 for isoenzyme A2. ABTS [2,2'-azino-di-(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] K m values (0.2 mM) for both isoenzymes are 20 times lower than those reported for commercial horseradish peroxidase anionic isoenzymes. Optimum pH for activity of isoenzymes A1 and A2 were 4.3 and 4.5, respectively. Optimum temperature for isoenzyme A1 was 57C, with an activation energy for inactivation of 148.8 kJ/mol.

Kinetics, Stereospecificity, and Expression of the Malolactic Enzyme

Mass spectrometric measurement of carbon dioxide production was used to study malolactic fermentation (MLF) in Lactobacillus collinoides isolated from cider. The kinetics and stereospecificity of the malolactic enzyme (MLE) were studied, and the stoichiometry of the reaction sequence was investigated. The optimum pH for activity of the MLE was 4.9. MLF was more rapid (in both intact cells and cell extracts) when L-malic acid was used than when D-malic acid or the racemic mixture was added. The enzyme was found to be constitutively present in L. collinoides. Addition of L-malic acid (37 mM) to the growth medium resulted in increased MLE activity; addition of the D isomer alone or the racemic mixture resulted in lower activities. Addition of the main sugars in apple juice (fructose, sucrose, and glucose) to the growth medium in the presence of malic acid repressed production of MLE to similar extents in all three cases; in the absence of malic acid, instead of inhibiting MLF, addition of sugars to the growth medium somewhat increased the residual MLE activity.

Optimizing the salt-induced activation of enzymes in organic solvents: effects of lyophilization time and water content.

The addition of simple inorganic salts to aqueous enzyme solutions prior to lyophilization results in a dramatic activation of the dried powder in organic media relative to enzyme with no added salt. Activation of both the serine protease subtilisin Carlsberg and lipase from Mucor javanicus resulting from lyophilization in the presence of KCl was highly sensitive to the lyophilization time and water content of the sample. Specifically, for a preparation containing 98% (w/w) KCl, 1% (w/w) phosphate buffer, and 1% (w/w) enzyme, varying the lyophilization time showed a direct correlation between water content and activity up to an optimum, beyond which the activity decreased with increasing lyophilization time. The catalytic efficiency in hexane varied as much as 13-fold for subtilisin Carlsberg and 11-fold for lipase depending on the lyophilization time. This dependence was apparently a consequence of including the salt, as a similar result was not observed for the enzyme freeze-dried without KCl. In the case of subtilisin Carlsberg, the salt-induced optimum value of kcat/Km for transesterification in hexane was over 20,000-fold higher than that for salt-free enzyme, a substantial improvement over the previously reported enhancement of 3750-fold (Khmelnitsky, 1994). As was found previously for pure enzyme, the salt-activated enzyme exhibited greatest activity when lyophilized from a solution of pH equal to the pH for optimal activity in water. The active-site content of the lyophilized enzyme samples also depended upon lyophilization time and inclusion of salt, with opposite trends in this dependence observed for the solvents hexane and tetrahydrofuran. Finally, substrate selectivity experiments suggested that mechanism(s) other than selective partitioning of substrate into the enzyme-salt matrix are responsible for salt-induced activation of enzymes in organic solvents.

Purification, properties and enhanced expression under nitrogen starvation of the NADP +-isocitrate dehydrogenase from the cyanobacterium Phormidium laminosum

Nitrogen starvation enhances up to 8-fold the cellular level of the NADP +-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase activity (isocitrate:NADP + oxidoreductase (decarboxylating), IDH, EC 1.1.1.42) in the thermophilic filamentous non-N 2-fixing cyanobacterium Phormidium laminosum. The enzyme was purified 650-fold to electrophoretic homogeneity from nitrogen-starved cells with an activity yield of 25% and a specific activity of 500 U (mg protein) −1. The native enzyme showed a p I of 5.9 and it was a dimer of 107 kDa consisting of two identical subunits of 53 kDa. The activity required the presence of a divalent metal cation as an essential activator, Mn 2+ or Mg 2+ being the most effective. The optimum temperature for activity was 55°C and the E a for catalysis was 39.7 kJ mol −1. An optimum pH for activity of 8.5 was found and the calculated p K E1, p K E2 and p K ES1 of enzyme ionisation groups were 6.0, 8.9 and 6.3, respectively. K m values of 22, 50 and 24 μM were calculated for d, l-isocitrate, NADP and Mn 2+, respectively, in the Mn 2+-dependent reaction and 70, 32 and 159 μM for d, l-isocitrate, NADP and Mg 2+, respectively, in the Mg 2+-dependent reaction. The decarboxylating activity was inhibited by ATP, ADP and by its reaction products 2-oxoglutarate and NADPH 2. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the pure IDH were used to assess the presence of the enzyme in cells subjected to nitrogen starvation.

Cloning and characterization of an endo-beta-1,3(4)glucanase and an aspartic protease from Phaffia rhodozyma CBS 6938.

We describe the identification and expression cloning of two novel enzymes, a beta-glucanase and an aspartic protease, secreted from the basidiomycetous yeast Phaffia rhodozyma. A cDNA library from P. rhodozyma CBS 6938 was constructed, and full-length cDNA encoding an endo-1,3(4)-beta-glucanase (bg1) and an aspartic protease (pr1) were cloned by expression cloning in Saccharomyces cerevisiae W3124. The bg1 cDNA encodes a 424-residue precursor protein with a putative signal peptide. The pr1 cDNA encodes a 405-residue prepropolypeptide with an 81-residue leader peptide. The aspartic protease was purified and characterized. It has a molecular mass of 36 kDa, an isoelectric point of pH 7.5, a pH activity optimum at 4.0-6.0, and a temperature activity optimum around 40 degrees C. Both enzymes show only low sequence identity to other known enzymes.

Purification, characterization, and application of an acid urease from Arthrobacter mobilis

It has been shown that urea in fermented beverages and foods can serve as a precursor of ethylcarbamate, a potential carcinogen, and acid urease is an effective agent for removing urea in such products. We describe herein the purification and characterization of a novel acid urease from Arthrobacter mobilis SAM 0752 and show its unique application for the removal of urea from fermented beverages using the Japanese rice wine, sake, as an example. The purified acid urease showed an optimum pH for activity at pH 4.2. The enzyme exhibited an apparent K m for urea of 3.0 mM and a V max of 2370 μmol of urea per mg and min at 37°C and pH 4.2. Gel permeation chromatographic and sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoretic analyses showed that the enzyme has an apparent native molecular weight ( M r) of 290 000 and consisted of three types of subunit proteins ( M r, 67 000, 16 600, 14 100) denoted by α, β, and γ. The most probable stoichiometry of the subunits was estimated to be α:β:γ=1:1:1, suggesting the enzyme subunit structure of (αβγ) 3. The enzyme also existed as an aggregated form with an M r of 580,000. The purified enzyme contained 2 g-atom of nickel per αβγ unit of the enzyme. Enzyme activity was inhibited by acetohydroxamic acid, HgCl 2, and CuCl 2. The isoelectric point of the native enzyme was estimated by gel electrofocusing to be 6.8. Urea (50 ppm), which was exogenously added to sake (pH 4.4, 17±1% (v/v) ethanol), was completely decomposed by incubation with the enzyme (0.09 U ml −1) at 15°C for 13 days. The enzyme was unstable at temperatures higher than 65°C and pHs lower than 4, and was completely inactivated under the conditions of a pasteurization step involved in the traditional sake-making processes. These results indicate that the enzyme is applicable to the elimination of urea in fermented beverages with minimal modification to the conventional process.

Geranoyl-CoA Carboxylase: A Novel Biotin-Containing Enzyme in Plants

Geranoyl-CoA carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.4) is a biotin-containing enzyme previously described in two genera of bacteria. Here we report the presence of geranoyl-CoA carboxylase in kingdom Plantae. Geranoyl-CoA carboxylase was purified 180-fold from maize leaves. The enzyme has a biotin-containing subunit of 122 kDa. The pH optimum for activity is 8.3. The apparentKmvalues for the substrates geranoyl-CoA, bicarbonate, and ATP are 64 ± 5 μM, 0.58 ± 0.04 mM, and 8.4 ± 0.4 μM, respectively. Subcellular fractionations indicate that geranoyl-CoA carboxylase is located in plastids. Geranoyl-CoA carboxylase activity is ubiquitous in organs of monocots and dicots and varies with development. We postulate that geranoyl-CoA carboxylase plays an important role in isoprenoid catabolism in plants, in a pathway analogous to that shown inPsuedomonassp. In plants, this catabolic pathway would require the interaction of at least three subcellular compartments (plastids, microbodies, and mitochondria) and two biotin-containing enzymes, geranoyl-CoA carboxylase and 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.

A comparative study of polyphenoloxidases from taro ( Colocasia esculenta) and potato ( Solanum tuberosum var. Romano)

Taro ( C. esculenta) is a staple food in many tropical regions. A comparative study of crude polyphenoloxidases from taro (tPPO) and potatoes (pPPO) was carried out to provide information useful for guiding food processing operations. Crude PPO was prepared by cold acetone precipitation using ascorbic acid as antioxidant. The PPO content of taro acetone powder was 770±17 units (mg protein) −1 as compared with 3848±180 units (mg protein) −1 in potato acetone powder. The pH-activity optimum was pH 4.6 for tPPO and pH 6.8 for pPPO. Both enzymes retained >80% activity after incubation at pH 4.5–8 but there was rapid activity loss at pH < 4. The temperature-activity optimum ( T opt) was 30°C for tPPO and 25°C for pPPO with 75 and 27% of their respective maximum activity retained at 60°C. Both tPPO and pPPO were irreversibly inactivated by 10 min heating at 70°C. The activation enthalpy (ΔH #) and activation entropy (ΔS #) for tPPO heat-inactivation were 87.4 (±0.1) kJ mol −1 and −56.2 (±4) J mol −1 K −1, respectively. For pPPO, ΔH # was 59.1 (±0.1) kJ mol −1 whilst ΔS # was −141 (±4) J mol −1 K −1. The apparent substrate specificity was established from values V max/ K m as: 4-methylcatechol>chlorogenic acid> dl-dopa>catechol>pyrogallol> dopamine>>caffeic acid for tPPO. There was no detectable activity towards caffeic acid. The substrate specificity for pPPO was: 4-methylcatechol>caffeic acid>pyrogallol>catechol>chlorogenic acid > dl-dopa>dopamine. According to the order of inhibitor effectiveness (sodium metabisulphite>ascorbic acid>NaCl≈ (EDTA), there was a significant lag-phase before increases occurred in the absorbance at 420 nm. Preincubation of PPO with inhibitors increased the extent of inhibition, indicating a direct effect on the structure of the enzyme.

Purification, characterization and gene analysis of exo-cellulase II (Ex-2) from the white rot basidiomycete Irpex lacteus

A new exo-type cellulase, named exo-cellulase II (Ex-2), was purified from the crude enzyme preparation of Irpex lacteus. Ex-2 was very similar to the previously characterized exo-cellulase I (Ex-1) with respect to enzymatic features such as optimal pH, temperature, heat stability, and catalytic activity. However, Ex-2 exhibited greater pH stability than Ex-1. The molecular mass and carbohydrate content of Ex-2 (56,000, 4.0%) were different from those of Ex-1 (53,000, 2.0%). A cellulase gene (named cel2) encoding both Ex-2 and Ex-1 was isolated from an I. lacteus genomic library. The cel2 gene was found to consist of 1569 bp with an open reading frame encoding 523 amino acids, interrupted by two introns. The deduced amino acid sequences revealed that cel2 ORF has a modular structure consisting of a catalytic domain and a fungal-type cellulose-binding domain (CBD) separated by a serine-rich linker region. The catalytic domain was homologous to those of fungal cellobiohydrolases belonging to family 7 of the glycosyl hydrolases. Northern blot analysis showed that expression of the cel2 gene was induced by various cellulosic substrates and repressed by glucose, fructose, and lactose.

Oxidation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Catalyzed by Soybean Peroxidase

Soybean peroxidase (SBP) catalyzes the oxidation of a variety of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the presence of water-miscible organic cosolvents, including acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, and dimethylformamide (DMF). Oxidation was optimal at pH 2.0–2.5, with substantially lower reactivity at pH 1.5 as well as at pH > 3.0. Despite the low pH activity optimum, SBP had an observed half-life of 120 h at pH 2.5. Conversions of greater than 90% were observed with anthracene and 9-methylanthracene in the presence of 50% (v/v) DMF. Anthracene oxidation yielded exclusively anthraquinone, thereby demonstrating that SBP catalyzes a formal six-electron oxidation of the unactivated aromatic substrate to the quinone. A mechanism is proposed to account for this reaction that includes the initial one-electron oxidation of the PAH followed by addition of water to the oxidized PAH. 9-Methylanthracene was more reactive than anthracene, and its enzymatic oxidation yielded two products: anthraquinone and 9-methanol-9,10-dihydroanthracene. The former product indicates that loss of the methyl group occurs during enzymatic oxidation. These results suggest that SBP could be useful in the conversion of PAHs into more environmentally benign materials.

Differential expression and properties of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase isoforms in tomato leaves.

In tomato leaves, excision and light treatments increase phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity, which is contributed by three PAL isoforms. These isoforms possessed similar native and subunit Mr, but were different in their pI, Km for Phe and optimal pH for activity. Also these were differentially induced and affected by metabolites belonging to particular branches of phenylpropanoid pathway.

Purification and characterization of recombinant Thermotoga maritima dihydrofolate reductase.

We have overexpressed the gene for dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) from Thermotoga maritima in Escherichia coli and characterized the biochemical properties of the recombinant protein. This enzyme is involved in the de novo synthesis of deoxythymidine 5'-phosphate and is critical for cell growth. High levels of T. maritima DHFR in the new expression system conferred resistance to high levels of DHFR inhibitors which inhibit the growth of non-recombinant cells. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity in the following two steps: heat treatment followed by affinity chromatography or cation-exchange chromatography. Most of the biochemical properties of T. maritima DHFR resemble those of other bacterial or eukaryotic DHFRs, however, some are unique to T. maritima DHFR. The pH optima for activity, Km for substrates, and polypeptide chain length of T. maritima DHFR are similar to those of other DHFRs. In addition, the secondary structure of T. maritima DHFR, as measured by circular dichroism, is similar to that of other DHFRs. Interestingly, T. maritima DHFR exhibits some characteristics of eukaryotic DHFRs, such as a basic pI, an excess of positively charged residues in the polypeptide chain and activation of the enzyme by inorganic salts and urea. Unlike most other DHFRs which are monomeric or part of a bifunctional DHFR-thymidylate synthase (TS) enzyme, T. maritima DHFR seems to generally form a dimer in solution and is also much more thermostable than other DHFRs. It may be that dimer formation is a key factor in determining the stability of T. maritima DHFR.

A novel esterase from Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, a possible function for the yeast TIP1 gene

An extracellular esterase was isolated from the brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Inhibition by diisopropyl fluorophosphate shows that the enzyme has a serine active site. By mass spectrometry, the molecular weight of the enzyme was 16·9 kDa. The optimal pH for activity was in the range of four to five. Esterase activity was found in beer before pasteurization, and a low level of activity was still present after pasteurization. Caprylic acid, which is present in beer, competitively inhibited the esterase. The substrate preference towards esters of p-nitrophenol indicated that the enzyme prefers esters of fatty acids from four to 16 carbon atoms. The esterase has lipolytical activity; olive oil (C-18:1), which is a classical substrate for lipase, was hydrolysed. N-terminal sequence analysis of the esterase yielded a sequence which was identical to the deduced amino acid sequence of the S. cerevisiae TIP1 gene. The esterase preparation did not appear to contain significant amounts of other proteins than Tip1p, indicating that the TIP1 gene is the structural gene for the esterase. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A novel esterase from Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, a possible function for the yeast TIP1 gene.

An extracellular esterase was isolated from the brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Inhibition by diisopropyl fluorophosphate shows that the enzyme has a serine active site. By mass spectrometry, the molecular weight of the enzyme was 16.9 kDa. The optimal pH for activity was in the range of four to five. Esterase activity was found in beer before pasteurization, and a low level of activity was still present after pasteurization. Caprylic acid, which is present in beer, competitively inhibited the esterase. The substrate preference towards esters of p-nitrophenol indicated that the enzyme prefers esters of fatty acids from four to 16 carbon atoms. The esterase has lipolytical activity; olive oil (C-18:1), which is a classical substrate for lipase, was hydrolysed. N-terminal sequence analysis of the esterase yielded a sequence which was identical to the deduced amino acid sequence of the S. cerevisiae TIP1 gene. The esterase preparation did not appear to contain significant amounts of other proteins than Tip1p, indicating that the TIP1 gene is the structural gene for the esterase.

The purification and characterization of a Trichoderma harzianum exochitinase

A chitinolytic enzyme was purified from the culture filtrate of T. harzianum (T198) by precipitation with ammonium sulphate followed by affinity binding to swollen chitin and release with 10% (v/v) acetic acid. The molecular weight of the enzyme was calculated to be 28 and 27.5 kD by gel filtration chromatography and SDS-PAGE, respectively. The isoelectric point of the enzyme was 7.4. The pH optimum for activity was 3.5 and maximum activity was obtained at 50°C. The enzyme displayed activity on a wide array of chitin substrates of more than two N-acetylglucosamine units in length. HPLC analysis of hydrolysis products demonstrated that the enzyme was an exochitinase releasing N-acetylglucosamine only.

Purification and characterization of a thermostable xylanase from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens

A Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain isolated from soil produced xylanolytic enzymes in the extracellular medium when grown on xylan and nitrate. No cellulase activity was detected. Xylanase was purified from the culture supernatant in three steps which comprised anion-exchange adsorption, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The pure enzyme appeared as two close protein bands on SDS-PAGE with molecular weights of 18.4 and 19.6 kD, respectively. The molecular weight obtained by sedimentation equilibrium under native conditions was about 18.5 kD. The isoelectric point was 10.1. The enzyme contains a relatively high content of aspartate, glycine, and threonine. Tryptophan seems to be essential for xylanase activity. The presence of carbohydrate was noted in the pure enzyme. Circular dichroism studies indicated that the protein contains almost equal proportions of α-helix, β-sheet, and β-turns. The optimum pH of activity was 6.8–7.0. The enzyme exhibited good stability even at pH 9.0. Excellent stability was observed at 50°C even though optimal activity was at 80°C. The activity was completely inhibited by Hg 2+ ions and was reduced drastically in the presence of Cu 2+ and Fe 3+ ions. Mn 2+ ions, EDTA, β-mercaptoethanol, and dithiothreitol up to 5 m m stimulated the enzyme activity.

Production of xylanases from a newly isolated alkalophilic thermophilic Bacillus sp.

A new thermophilic strain of Bacillus SPS-0 which produces thermostable xylanases was isolated from a hot spring in Portugal. Xylanase production was 50 nkat/ml in the presence of wheat bran arabinoxylan. The temperature and pH for optimum activity were 75°C and 6–9, respectively. The hydrolysis patterns demonstrated that crude xylanases yield mainly xylose and xylobiose from xylan, whereas xylose and arabinose were produced from destarched wheat bran. An increase in xylose release was observed when SPS-0 xylanase was supplemented by a ferulic acid esterase. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998