PGA Tour Research Articles

Book Reviews

Robert Flood of Notre Dame Emeritus reviews “Super Golfonomics”, by Stephen Shmanske. The Econlit abstract of this book begins: “Explores topics in economics and related fields using the economic and statistical analysis of the sport of golf. Discusses the economics of slow play; golf course waiting─the good, the bad, and the ugly; consistency or heroics; skills, performance, and earnings in the tournament compensation model─evidence from PGA Tour microdata; gender discrimination revisited; gender and driving distance; examining which tournaments exempt golfers choose to enter; the use of regression analysis to examine how golfers decide which tournaments to enter; sports gambling, golf, and efficient markets; the search for economic impact─the case of the golf Majors; and lines of research that others have undertaken.” Shmanske is at California State University.

The impact of pressure on performance: Evidence from the PGA TOUR

Do large rewards lead to psychological pressure causing underperformance? Previous studies have tested this ‘choking’ phenomenon using the world of sports, but such studies often lack an explicit link between performance and reward. This study utilizes a large PGA TOUR dataset to more directly analyze the effect of pressure on individual performance by calculating the potential change in earnings from making or missing a putt on the final hole of a tournament. We find that as the amount of money riding on a shot increases, the likelihood that shot is made is significantly reduced.

Does Stableford Scoring Incentivize More Aggressive Golf?

A few PGA Tour events have been played using modified Stableford scoring, a format in which the gain to playing a hole below par is greater than the cost of an above-par score on a hole. This article examines whether the asymmetric gains and losses of modified Stableford scoring are associated with more aggressive play. Although the results indicate that modified Stableford scoring is associated with longer tee shots and an increased likelihood of tee shots missing the fairway, modified Stableford scoring is unrelated to golfers’ likelihood of going for the green on par-five holes, the likelihood of first putts being made, the likelihood of first putts being hit beyond the cup, and the distribution of scores relative to par. Hence, there is, at best, weak evidence that modified Stableford scoring is associated with more aggressive play.

The Impact of Pressure on Performance: Evidence from the PGA Tour

The Impact of Pressure on Performance: Evidence from the PGA Tour

Recurrence Analysis of golfers' performances on the PGA TOUR

Recurrence Analysis of golfers' performances on the PGA TOUR

The influence of title sponsorships in sports events on stock price returns

The purpose of this study was to examine stock price abnormal returns following title sponsorship announcement and event date of NASCAR, the PGA Tour, and the LPGA Tour. For this purpose, the authors used event study analysis where the analysis measures the impact that a specific event has on stock prices by comparing actual stock returns to estimated returns (Spais & Filis, 2008). An event study analysis demonstrated that title sponsors for the LPGA Tour and NASCAR garnered significant stock price increases on both the announcement date and the event date. The moderator tests suggested that high image congruence and high-technology related sponsorships assumed a key role in stock price increases.

The use of Radial Shockwave Therapy in conjunction with physical therapy for the treatment of chronic tendon injuries of the wrist and elbow in professional golfers

Background: To date we have seen an overuse of cortisone injections, NSAIDS, ice/heat combinations, homeopathic remedies, ointments, gels, heat, acupuncture, dry needling, etc. for chronic tendon injuries. Due to the repetitive nature of the golf swing, the large percentage of time spent practicing if this is your chosen career it is not surprising to find that 76% of professional golfers present with a chronic injury at some point, with the large majority being those of the upper limb. The aim of this study was to estimate changes in pain and function using a less invasive treatment such as Radial Shockwave Therapy, in conjunction with physical therapy.Methods: 25 professional male golfers that play on a professional circuit full time across, US PGA Tour, European tour, Japanese Tour, Australasian Tour and One Asia Tour. Treatment group was 20 = N being those that reported pain as being 7/10 or greater. They were given 3 consecutive sessions of Radial Shockwave Therapy using the same Swiss Dolorclast machine in a week.Results: In 80% of group, pain was less than 4/10 = M post treatment of the RSWT, after physical therapy to the wrist and hand pain had an M score of 2/10. This improved further after treatment of the shoulder, cervicals and thoracic spine on the affected side M score of 1/10. Treatment of the opposite hip and pelvis removed pain completely in 50% of the group. After 4 weeks M score of 4/10 for the group.Discussion: I think the results almost support the poor understanding that still occurs with the mechanics required of the golf swing. Why is there such a prevalence of upper limb injuries, why is there a significant improvement in pain after addressing other crucial body parts that remove stress from the upper limb. The RSWT is great to treat localized pain that limits movement and function but the real gains appear when you combine this with the treatment that removes the stress from the injured site. Obviously a small specific group, but 18 out of the 20 professionals managed to compete in those 4 weeks with minimal intervention which provides exciting prospects for the future of RSWT in a sports medicine field. Background: To date we have seen an overuse of cortisone injections, NSAIDS, ice/heat combinations, homeopathic remedies, ointments, gels, heat, acupuncture, dry needling, etc. for chronic tendon injuries. Due to the repetitive nature of the golf swing, the large percentage of time spent practicing if this is your chosen career it is not surprising to find that 76% of professional golfers present with a chronic injury at some point, with the large majority being those of the upper limb. The aim of this study was to estimate changes in pain and function using a less invasive treatment such as Radial Shockwave Therapy, in conjunction with physical therapy. Methods: 25 professional male golfers that play on a professional circuit full time across, US PGA Tour, European tour, Japanese Tour, Australasian Tour and One Asia Tour. Treatment group was 20 = N being those that reported pain as being 7/10 or greater. They were given 3 consecutive sessions of Radial Shockwave Therapy using the same Swiss Dolorclast machine in a week. Results: In 80% of group, pain was less than 4/10 = M post treatment of the RSWT, after physical therapy to the wrist and hand pain had an M score of 2/10. This improved further after treatment of the shoulder, cervicals and thoracic spine on the affected side M score of 1/10. Treatment of the opposite hip and pelvis removed pain completely in 50% of the group. After 4 weeks M score of 4/10 for the group. Discussion: I think the results almost support the poor understanding that still occurs with the mechanics required of the golf swing. Why is there such a prevalence of upper limb injuries, why is there a significant improvement in pain after addressing other crucial body parts that remove stress from the upper limb. The RSWT is great to treat localized pain that limits movement and function but the real gains appear when you combine this with the treatment that removes the stress from the injured site. Obviously a small specific group, but 18 out of the 20 professionals managed to compete in those 4 weeks with minimal intervention which provides exciting prospects for the future of RSWT in a sports medicine field.

골프 드라이버 비거리가 타수에 미치는 영향에 대한 종단적자료 분석

The purpose of this study was to analyze the longitudinal effect of driving distance on scoring average in PGA tour. For this study, data were taken from official PGA Tour web site. They were longitudinal data over 33 years(1980-2012) since driving distance and scoring average have been measured repeatedly every year. Ranks of the player were considered as subjects. A linear mixed model was applied to the data to estimate cross-sectional as well as longitudinal effect of driving distance on scoring average. The estimates of the linear mixed model showed that there was a difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal effect. Therefore, if we use the ordinary least squares of regression analysis to get the effect of driving distance on scoring average, we would have wrong information about the relationship. From the longitudinal effect it can be concluded that scoring average has decreased about .73 significantly as driving distance has increased 33.27 yards longitudinally.

Effects of Motives on Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions of Volunteers at a PGA Tour Event

The article discusses the relationship between volunteer motivation and volunteer satisfaction and behavioral intent at a Professional Golf Association tour event. The authors report on the importance of volunteers for the successful operation and management of sporting events. In their study, the personal enrichment, prestige, and career enhancement shown by earlier studies surfaced as an egoistic or material, motivational factor. The emergence of golf interest is noted. Previous studies looked at include Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, and Green & Chalip.

A Hole in One (Hundred Forty Characters): A Case Study Examining PGA Tour Golfers’ Twitter Use During the Masters

This case study explored how professional golfers participating in the Masters tournament used Twitter during the week of the event. Basing the research in self-presentation theory, the author conducted a content analysis of 895 tweets by 39 golfers. The results suggest that athletes are using Twitter to give fans both a front-stage and a backstage glimpse into their lives, with engaging with fans (front stage) being the most prominent. By balancing between front stage and backstage, the athletes are able to give fans a more intimate view of their life, while also maintaining a public persona that can please sponsors. Limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.

Stochastic model of the 2012 PGA Tour season

AbstractAn absorbing Markov chain was used to model the 2012 PGA Tour Golf Season. Expected number of steps until absorption was used to establish expected scores for different locations (fairway, primary rough, green, etc.) and distances from the hole. Strokes gained analysis was then performed to evaluate the quality of each shot hit by players on the 2012 PGA Tour. Skill rankings were developed, tradeoffs between distance and accuracy were assessed, and player strategy was analyzed for playing par 5s.

Drive for dough. PGA Tour golfers’ tee shot functional accuracy, distance and hole score

A player’s ability to score low is critical to the tournament outcome in golf. The relationships of round scores to fairways hit in regulation or striking distance on two holes per round have been investigated before with some disagreement. The purpose is therefore to examine the relationships of par-4 and par-5 hole scores to tee shot functional accuracy and distance, measured as lie of the ball and penalty, and striking distance or distance to the pin for the second shot. Such information is possible to collect without interviewing players. The best US Professional Golfers’ Association Tour players’ statistics during a season are used, provided by the Professional Golfers’ Association Tour and ShotLink. Distance was measured with laser equipment. The results include significant (P < 0.05) correlations between score and striking distance or distance to pin, when hitting rough but not fairway on par-4s and when hitting fairway and rough on par-5s. It is therefore relevant, for performance, to consider the type of fairway miss as well as the striking distance in relation to the par and length of the hole. The findings can be considered when making gap and needs profiles, and when making tactical decisions for tee shots on different types of holes.

Risk Management with Tournament Incentives

The convex payoff structure in professional golf rewards scoring volatility, giving rise to player types who succeed in spite of higher average scoring. The same risk incentives should influence all players to adjust risk strategies at key moments in tournaments when payoffs either crystalize or become particularly convex. This paper develops a simple theoretical framework, then explores the empirical evidence for strategic risk adjustment by players over the 2003-2012 PGA Tour seasons. Findings suggest that players respond measurably on average to risk incentives around the cutline, but much less so (if at all) to leaderboard position on the closing holes of a tournament. Both the payoff to risk and the technical capacity of players to add or subtract risk are estimated. Analysis of individual players indicates that some elite players are more risk responsive. Bias (e.g. loss aversion) is discussed along with other possible explanations for the apparent lack of risk response over the closing holes of a tournament.

Using PGA Tour Results to Illustrate the Effects of Selection Bias

This lesson is designed to give students in a wide variety of undergraduate classes the opportunity to identify the problems inherent in analyzing imperfect data. Students are asked to analyze data, which the authors provide, from the Professional Golfers’ Association Tour to ponder the link between golfers’ skills in different facets of the game and their relative performances in certain tournaments. Selection issues are inherent in the data because of Tour policies regarding golfers’ tournament entry decisions. By the end of the lesson, students should better understand the importance of gaining institutional knowledge to improve the results of a study. Students are asked to mitigate the selection bias with the Heckman two-step procedure, a tool used in studies of labor, insurance, and education markets.

Risk management with tournament incentives

The convex payoff structure in professional golf rewards scoring volatility, giving rise to player types who succeed in spite of higher average scoring. The same risk incentives should influence all players to adjust risk strategies at key moments in tournaments when payoffs either crystallize or become particularly convex. This paper develops a simple theoretical framework, then explores the empirical evidence for strategic risk adjustment by players over the 2003–2012 PGA Tour seasons. Findings suggest that players respond measurably on average to risk incentives around the cutline, but much less so (if at all) to leaderboard position on the closing holes of a tournament. Both the payoff to risk and the technical capacity of players to add or subtract risk are estimated. Analysis of individual players indicates that some elite players are more risk responsive. Bias (e.g., loss aversion) is discussed along with other possible explanations for the apparent lack of risk response over the closing holes of a tournament.

Are the official world golf rankings biased?a

Golf is a global sport with professional golfers playing on many organized tours throughout the world. The largest and most important tours for male professionals include the PGA Tour, European Tour, Japanese Tour and Asian Tour. The Official World Golf Ranking, or OWGR, is a system for ranking male professional golfers on a single scale. We say a ranking system is unbiased if otherwise identical golfers who happen to play on different tours have the same (or very similar) ranks. In this paper, we investigate whether the OWGR system is biased for or against any of the tours, and if so, by how much. To investigate any potential bias, we compare the OWGR system with two unbiased methods for estimating golfer skill and performance. The first is a score-based skill estimation (SBSE) method, which uses scoring data to estimate golfer skill, taking into account the relative difficulty of the course in each tournament round. The second is the Sagarin method, which uses win-lose-tie and scoring differential results for golfers playing in the same tournaments, to rank golfers. Neither the score-based skill method nor the Sagarin method use tour information in calculating player ranks, and therefore neither method is biased for or against any tour. Using data from 2002 to 2010 and comparing the results ranks from the OWGR and score-based methods, we find that PGA Tour golfers are penalized by an average of 26–37 OWGR ranking positions compared to non-PGA Tour golfers. Qualitatively similar results are found when comparing OWGR and Sagarin ranks. In all cases, the bias is large and statistically significant. We find a persistent bias through time and also find that the bias tends to be the largest for golfers with SBSE ranks between 40 and 120.

Advanced putting metrics in golf

Using ShotLink data that records information on every stroke taken on the PGA Tour, this paper introduces a new metric to assess putting. The methodology is based on ideas from spatial statistics where a spatial map of each green is constructed. The spatial map provides estimates of the expected number of putts from various green locations. The difficulty of a putt is a function of both its distance to the hole and its direction. A golfer’s actual performance can then be assessed against the expected number of putts.

What It Takes to Win on the PGA TOUR (If Your Name Is “Tiger” or If It Isn't)

In this study, we show what it takes to win on the PGA TOUR for Tiger Woods and other professional golfers as a function of individual player skill, random variation in scoring, strength of field, and depth of field. When Woods wins, he wins by scoring an average of 0.71 strokes per round less than other winning players. This difference reflects (1) that Woods may play better than other winning players when he wins and (2) that Woods tends to play in tournaments with the strongest fields, which require lower scores to win. To make this assessment, we develop a novel simulation-based estimate of relative tournament difficulty—the mean score per round that it takes to win a PGA TOUR event. We also explore the extent to which players could have won tournaments on the PGA TOUR by playing their normal game, with no favorable random variation in scoring. We estimate that Woods is the only player who could have won events on the PGA TOUR over the 2003–2009 seasons by simply playing his normal game.

The Roles of Credibility and Social Consciousness in the Corporate Philanthropy-Consumer Behavior Relationship

The attention paid to the influence of organizational philanthropy on consumer responses has precipitated a shift in the role this practice plays in organizational dynamics—with philanthropy becoming an increasingly strategic marketing tool. The authors develop and test a model predicting that: (1) perceived organizational credibility will mediate the relationship between awareness of philanthropy and the outcomes of advocacy and financial sacrifice; (2) consumer social consciousness will moderate the relationship between awareness of philanthropy and firm credibility, and between credibility and the outcome variables; and (3) these moderated relationships will be mediated by perceived credibility. Data obtained from a sample of professional golf patrons support our assertions. Notably, the findings implicate perceived credibility as a key intervening variable in the hypothesized relationships for the PGA Tour.

A Model for Visualizing Difficulty in Golf and Subsequent Performance Rankings on the PGA Tour

Conventional performance indicators used in golf tend to rely on classifications of shots based on the distance to the hole. Consequently, these indicators ignore the unique factors which make up the difficulty of each shot. The aim of the project was to develop new performance indicators which are independent from the other shots played on a hole as well as a visualization of unique areas on a hole. Using the ISOPAR method a representative performance of the field is calculated at each hole. This allows visualizing difficult areas with respect to the field’s performance and new performance indicators which are independent of preceding shots. We looked at the ShotLink database for all tournaments measured in 2011 and compared the rankings of the PGA Tour to rankings generated using the ISOPAR method. We argue that the players who do well in the ISOPAR based rankings tend to be players who are subjectively and popularly known to be good performers for the respective shot types. The theoretical background a...