Attachment Theory Perspective Research Articles

An attachment and behavioral systems perspective on social support

In this article we explain how attachment theory characterizes the seeking, receipt, and provision of social support. In the first section, we explain attachment theory's perspective on support-seeking (or attachment behavior) and support-provision (or caregiving behavior). In the second section, we discuss what has been learned about attachment-style differences in perceived support, seeking support, and providing support. In the third section, we consider the empirically documented psychological benefits of receiving support, which we summarize in terms of a broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security. Throughout the article we offer several avenues for future research that can advance our understanding of the cognitive-affective and neural mechanisms underlying social support and the psychological benefits of supportive experiences.

A behavioral perspective of childhood trauma and attachment issues: Toward alternative treatment approaches for children with a history of abuse.

INTRODUCTION Authors of recent studies on abuse have proposed that trauma and related traumatic experiences within the family of origin have important implications for parent-child relationships, and may disrupt normal attachment behavior in children. These studies have primarily examined previous trauma and long-term sequela of severe childhood and adolescent psychopathology from the perspective of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980). The central premise of attachment theory is that the security of the early child-parent bond is reflected in the child's interpersonal relationships across the life span (Schneider, Tardif, & Atkinson, 2001). This article examines childhood trauma and attachment issues from the perspective of behavior analysis, and provides a forum in which the authors provide rationales for new cognitive focused or trauma-focused behavioral treatment approaches for abused children and their foster or adoptive parents. These new therapeutic models provide dyadic, cognitive, and emotive behavioral interventions that encourage positive behavior change with abused children placed in foster and adoptive families. Research studies focusing on mediating the long-term sequela of repetitive, intrafamilial abuse and neglect have repeatedly argued that a history of pathogenic care can interfere with secure attachment and disrupt healthy development in children (Howe, Brandon, Hinnings, & Schofield, 1999; Schneider, Tardif, & Atkinson, 2001). This is especially true in foster and adoptive families in which children have been abused or neglected as part of their early experiences. Research on foster children and problematic attachment has consistently found that long-term sequela of abuse leads to a complex array of emotional deficiencies and behavioral symptoms that reflect the traumatic effects of maltreatment on children, and create strain on attachment with their adoptive parents (Berry & Barth, 1989; Dyer, 2004; O'Connor & Zeanah, 2003). This strain in the children's lives, often across multiple placements and multiple caregivers, increases the likelihood of difficulties across a range of development. Research investigating abuse and insecure attachment behavior in foster and adoptive children has linked these factors to emotional and behavioral difficulties in these children. Statement of Problem Researchers investigating maltreated children have repeatedly found that neglected or abused children in foster and adoptive populations manifest different emotional and behavioral reactions to regain lost or secure relationships (Ainsworth, 1989; Hazan & Shaver, 1994), and are frequently reported to have disorganized attachments (Hughes, 2004) and a need to control their environment (Loyn-Ruth & Jacobvitz, 1999). Such children are not likely to view caregivers as being a source of safety, and instead typically show an increase in aggressive and hyperactive behaviors, which Berry and Barth (1989) suggest disrupt healthy or secure attachment with their adopted parents. These children have apparently learned to adapt to an abusive and inconsistent caregiver by becoming cautiously self-reliant, and are often described as glib, manipulative and disingenuous in their interactions with others as they move through childhood (Schofield & Beek, 2005). The major challenges reported in parenting maltreated children include their profound lack of trust (Schofield & Beek, 2005) and a distorted sense of security, often reflected in the child's poor interpersonal relationships across the life span. Researchers investigating children adopted at older ages report many of the same symptoms found in foster children with backgrounds of pathogenic care, including a failure to develop secure attachments. Behavioral and emotional descriptions of these older children suggest that they lack impulse control and normal conscience and moral development (Termini & Golden, 2007), and often present as superficially engaging or connected to others, emotionally aloof, and unwilling to participate in treatment, all possibly connected to impaired attachment (Dyer, 2004; O'Connor & Zeanah, 2003). …

Attachment Theory, Religious Beliefs, and the Limits of Reason

This paper takes a new look at Freud’s critique of religious beliefs and wishes from the perspective of current attachment theory, particularly with reference to Peter Fonagy. By reconceptualizing Freud’s critique, it can be argued that he anticipated some current empirical studies in religiosity and attachment, and that his critique accurately describes the religiosity of insecurely attached individuals. The paper argues that current social theories, especially as represented in the work of Jurgen Habermas, about religion and its role in politics and the public sphere could benefit from incorporating insights from attachment theory.

Gender Identity Disorder and psychotherapy: an attachment theory perspective

Objective The current research project was aimed to explore in adult patients suffering from Gender Identity Disorder (GID) the theme related to the specific nature of the States of Mind with Regard to Attachment and the influence of the Dismissing Attachment Internal Working Model on the relative resistance to the psychological investigation of the patients’clinical and existential experiences. Methodology All patients suffering from GID, who came to the Functional Area of Psychology of the Department of Neuroscience of Federico II University Hospital requesting treatment to provide psychological assistance for problems connected to Gender Dysphoria, among 2005 and 2007, were registered in sequential order. The following tests were administered to all patients: 1) MMPI-2; 2) Adult Attachment Interview. The statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 12.0. Results The results confirm the increase, among people with this disorder, of Insecure Conditions of the Mind, especially of the Dismissing type, and of Unresolved Status of the Mind with respect to Traumas or Losses. Moreover, dismissing subjects tend to reflect a relative resistance to psychotherapeutic treatment. Discussion On the basis of the preliminary results of our research, we discuss how psychological intervention could have a dual objective: 1) Improving the possibility of access to a more satisfying emotional-relational life. 2) Allowing an adequate working-through of complex traumatic events, which appear to pepper the life experiences of individuals with this condition and which often seem not have been adequately worked through.

The Metallic Womb

This study of malevolent narcissism examines the relationship between the Washington Snipers, Muhammad and Malvo, from the perspectives of attachment theory and Kleinian theory. Muhammad embodied a perverted understanding of manliness. Malvo was desperate for the love of a father, and fused with the omnipotent destructiveness of John Muhammad. Together they embarked on a failed Quest, recreating the original infant/caregiver scenario, which in their experience was about destruction and death, rather than gratitude and life. Malvo and Muhammad were perfect together, merged into one unit devoted to murder. Their victims were random and multiple, like their early caregivers.

Attachment Theory in Supervision: A Critical Incident Experience

Critical incident experiences are a powerful source of counselor development (T. M. Skovholt & P. R. McCarthy, 1988a, 1988b) and are relevant to attachment issues. An attachment theory perspective of supervision is presented and applied to a critical incident case scenario. By focusing on the behavioral systems (i.e., attachment, caregiving, and exploratory) identified by J. Bowlby (1969), previous conceptualizations are expanded by illuminating relational concepts that supervisors could use to facilitate counselor learning.

Attachment Representations in 6-Year-Old Children from One and Two Parent Families in Germany

Viewed from the perspective of attachment theory, coping with the separation and divorce of parents requires that children reorganize their mental model of attachment. Secure attachment models may be disrupted, while insecure attachment models may be strengthened. According to findings from research on divorce, this process of family reorganization takes about two years. Attachment representations in middle childhood can be assessed by new methods that rely on the symbolic medium of story completion in doll play. Based on five coded attachment story narratives, the Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT) by Bretherton and Ridgeway, and the German Coding and Classification System by Gloger-Tippelt and König, permits the assessment of secure, avoidant, ambivalent and disorganized attachment representations reliably, and to rate attachment security on a four-point-scale. In this study we compare the attachment representations in ASCT of 51 children from two parent families with 60 six-year-old children from one parent, all mother families who experienced separation/divorce, and were still in the phase of family reconstruction. The children of single mothers demonstrated fewer secure and more insecure attachment representations, in particular more avoidant ones. Moreover, in the children from one parent, but not from two parent families a significant gender effect emerged. Results have been discussed considering further risk factors in the one parent families and possible influences of children's attachment representations in the school setting.

The Effect of Support Expectations on Prenatal Attachment: An Evidence-Based Approach for Intervention in an Adolescent Population

This study was designed to determine the significant variables predicting prenatal attachment in an adolescent population. Scientifically supported knowledge of the factors enhancing attachment plays a crucial role in assisting social workers and other health care professionals to accurately assess and intervene to decrease pregnancy risks. Previous prenatal attachment studies demonstrated conflicting findings due to problems from using different theoretical frameworks and research methodologies. In order to ensure consistency, this study infused an attachment theory perspective. Bowlby’s attachment theory, Levitt’s support expectations model, and research from prenatal relationship studies were integrated. The social survey sampled 129 minority status pregnant adolescents attending public school. Measurements included the Prenatal Attachment Inventory (PAI) and the Support Expectations Index (SEI). Regression analyses revealed that support expectation was a powerful predictor of prenatal attachment with pregnancy planning and less stress adding importantly to explain over 33% of the variance. Support expectation was a greater predictor of prenatal attachment than the actual support available. Findings also supported the construct of prenatal attachment as the initial stage of development of the life cycle.

Thérèse of Lisieux From the Perspective of Attachment Theory and Separation Anxiety

This article interprets the life of Thérèse of Lisieux within the general theoretical context of Bowlby's (1969, 1973, 1980) attachment theory and with reference to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(text rev. [DSM-IV- TR], American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria for separation anxiety. Recent theoretical interpretations of the religious life within the context of attachment theory by Kirkpatrick (1999) and Granqvist (2003) are of special relevance. Thérèse's childhood psychological experiences and her later adult experiences in the religious life are presented and discussed. It is proposed that Thérèse was able to use her childhood attachment traumas and pathological experiences of separation anxiety as a positive source of motivation in her search for and response to God.

Trauma and psychotherapy: Implications from a behavior analysis perspective.

Introduction Authors of recent studies on abuse have proposed that trauma and related traumatic experiences have important implications for parent-child relationships, and may disrupt normal attachment behavior in children. These studies have primarily examined previous trauma and long-term sequela of severe childhood and adolescent psychopathology from the perspective of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980). The central premise of attachment theory is that the security of the early child-parent bond is reflected in the child's interpersonal relationships across the life span (Schneider, Tardif, & Atkinson, 2001). This article examines attachment theory as a theoretical context for understanding trauma and attachment based models of family therapy from the perspective of behavior analysis. The present article proposes a research model to provide the context to examine how abuse and neglect, separation or loss, family therapy, parent-child relationships, and secure attachments can be integrated to predict positive outcomes in families with adoptive and foster children. Research studies focusing on mediating the long-term sequela of abuse have repeatedly argued that feeling secure is our most primary social need, and that a history of pathogenic care can interfere with secure attachment and disrupt healthy development in children (Howe, Brandon, Hinnings, & Schofield, 1999; Schneider, Tardif, & Atkinson, 2001). This is especially true in foster and adoptive families in which children have been abused or neglected as part of their early experiences. Research on foster children and problematic attachment has consistently found that long-term sequela of abuse creates strain on attachment with their adoptive parents (Berry & Barth, 1989; Dyer, 2004; O'Connor & Zeanah, 2003). This strain in the children's lives, often through multiple placements, increases the likelihood of difficulties across a range of development. Research investigating abuse and insecure attachment behavior in foster and adoptive children has linked these factors to emotional and behavioral difficulties in these children. This article looks at the emotional and behavioral symptoms associated with abused children placed in foster and adoptive families from a multidimensional complex of systemic and contextual factors that impact behavior. The research model underlying this multidimensional complex provides the context to examine the many important roles of family members and other reinforcing agents, and presents a rationale for a behavioral treatment approach for abused children and their adoptive parents. The rationale underlying this behavioral approach assumes that overcoming long-term consequences of abuse is subject to the same lawful inevitability as other behavior (Wolpe, 1978), and challenges the allegation that children have a continued dependency on the external structure in behavioral treatment programs. Individual differences in abused and neglected children are determined by previous learning in relation to particular perceptions and unique experiences. Although much learning is reinforced though external consequences, the relative importance of this multidimensional behavioral approach assumes that the character of an (abused child's) responses is inevitably controlled and is determined by previous learning, and in other instances subserved by other reinforcing agents (Wolpe, 1978). Reasons are given for rejecting the views of traditional therapists and others that talking about trauma to co-construct the meaning or that recognition of emotion is necessary for healthy behavior change. Questions are raised which suggest that traditional family therapy provides an environment for learned dysfunctional habits that are then reinforced in therapy. Research Model In the case of foster and adopted children, the development of a secure and coherent pattern of attachment behaviors toward their caregivers is heralded as the primary indicator of positive change in the family. …

Age and sex differences in the influence of attachment relationships on adolescent psychological health

AbstractThe quality of adolescent attachment with mothers, fathers, and peers, and the impact of these relationships on psychological health and self-esteem is examined in a sample of 615 high school students. Using an attachment theory perspective, it is argued that different attachment relationships have different affects on adjustment depending on age and gender. Results support the view that attachment develops in peer relationships before withdrawing from parental relationships in adolescence and that this process occurs at different ages and has different consequences for self-esteem and depression. Mother attachment had a greater impact on psychological adjustment for girls while father attachment had a greater impact for boys. It is concluded that while an attachment framework is useful for understanding developmental changes in relationship networks during adolescence, further individual difference and developmental factors may need to be considered.

Self and relationships: connecting intrapersonal and interpersonal processes

E.J. Finkel, K.D. Vohs, Introduction: Self and Relationships. Part 1. Self - Relationships. Section IA: Self-Regulation. C.D. Rawn, K.D. Vohs, The Importance of Self-regulation for Interpersonal Functioning. G. Fitzsimons, Pursuing Goals and Perceiving Others: A Self-regulatory Perspective on Interpersonal Relationships. Section IB: Self-concept. Campbell, Brunell, Finkel, Narcissism, Interpersonal Self-regulation, and Romantic Relationships: An Agency Model Approach. L.E. Park, J. Crocker, K.D. Vohs, Contingencies of Self-worth and Self-validation Goals: Implications for Close Relationships. Van Orden, Joiner, Jr., The Inner and Outer Turmoil of Excessive Reassurance Seeking: From Self-doubts to Social Rejection. Section IC: Interpersonal Schemas and Orientations. Feeney, An Attachment Theory Perspective on the Interplay between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Processes. Knee, Canevello, Implicit Theories of Relationships and Coping in Romantic Relationships. Showers, Limke, Organization of Partner Knowledge: Implications for Liking and Loving, Longevity, and Change. Van Lange, From Altruism to Aggression: Understanding Social Interaction. Part 2. Relationships - Self. Section IIA: Interdependence: Overarching Perspectives. Leary, A Functional, Evolutionary Analysis of the Impact of Interpersonal Events on Intrapersonal Self-processes. Blackhart, Baumeister, Twenge, Rejection's Impact on Self-defeating, Prosocial, Antisocial, and Self-regulatory Behaviors. Lucas, Dyrenforth, Does the Existence of Social Relationships Matter for Subjective Well-Being? Agnew, Etcheverry, Cognitive Interdependence: Considering Self-in-Relationship. Section IIB: Specific Social Interaction Processes. Finkel, Campbell, Brunell, High-maintenance Interaction and Self-regulation. Kumashiro, Rusbult, Wolf, Estrada, The Michelangelo Phenomenon: Partner Affirmation and Self Movement toward One's Ideal. Strong, Aron, The Effect of Shared Participation in Novel and Challenging Activities on Experienced Relationship Quality: Is it Mediated by High Positive Affect? Koole, Kuhl, Jostmann, Finkenauer, Self-regulation in Interpersonal Relationships: The Case of Action versus State Orientation. Section IIC: Interpersonal Cognitive Processes. Shah, When Your Wish is My Desire: A Triangular Model of Self-regulatory Relationships. Seeley, Gardner, Succeeding at Self-control through a Focus on Others: The Roles of Social Practice and Accountability in Self-Regulation.

Postpartum Depression: Its Impact on Couples and Marital Satisfaction

Postpartum depression affects 13% of women who give birth. Although traditional treatment identified the woman as the patient, current thinking recognizes that postpartum depression may occur within the context of a family system and may be experienced by the new mother as “failing” to meet her needs. This perception has repercussions for the marital relationship. The following article describes the impact of postpartum depression on marital satisfaction and reviews some of the clinical approaches used in treatment. The paper presents a case example, using an attachment theory perspective and couple therapy to address a woman's antenatal depression, reduce her risks for postpartum depression, and increase marital satisfaction.

Attachment linked predictors of women's emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress

The purpose of this study was to examine associations among women's emotional and cognitive responses to infant fear and anger and to identify attachment linked predictors of these responses. Four hundred and forty Caucasian and African American undergraduate college women viewed video clips of two crying infants, one displaying anger and the other displaying fear. They identified what the infants were feeling, made causal attributions about the cause of crying, rated their own emotional reactions to the crying infants, and reported on the extent to which their parents met their emotional needs in childhood and their current adult attachment patterns. Emotional and cognitive responses to infant fear and anger were interrelated. Consistent with prediction, a history of parental emotional rejection and adult attachment anxiety and avoidance correlated negatively with accurate identification of emotions and positively with negative attributions, amusement, and neutral responses to infant distress. Adult attachment security moderated the effects of early parental rejection on emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress, and these results varied based on race and parent gender. Results are discussed from an attachment theory perspective.

Antecedents of mothers' emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress: The role of family, mother, and infant characteristics.

The antecedents of mothers' emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress were examined. Participants were 67 mothers and their infants. Mothers completed questionnaires assessing their experiences in the family of origin and current marital relationships both pre- and postnatally and their coping strategies prenatally. Infant temperament was observed at 6 months, and mothers were interviewed about their emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress 2 years later to assess their emotional competencies (i.e., accurate identification of negative emotions, emotion efficacy, emotional responses to infant distress, and emotion goals). A childhood history of emotional rejection was negatively associated with empathy and efficacy and positively associated with negative emotions. The association between childhood history and some emotional competencies was moderated by current marital dysfunction, engaged coping, and positive intervening relationships. Maternal marital styles and coping strategies and infant temperament correlated with emotional competencies. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed from an attachment theory perspective.

Attachment and the Body in Suicidal Adolescents: A Pilot Study

There is a relative dearth of studies in the field of adolescent attachment despite the potential impact of such developmental changes on the organization of attachment systems. This omission is even more acute among clinical populations, although adolescence is notable for dramatic increases in specific psychopathologies, e.g. eating disorders, delinquency, and suicide and self-harm. This article attempts to address the shortfall using a mixed quantitative/qualitative research design. First, it examines the association between attachment styles and suicidality by comparing two groups of adolescent participants attending a psychotherapy clinic. Second, it explores the phenomenology of different presentations of suicidality in adolescence from a psychodynamically informed attachment theory perspective. The clinical and research implications from these findings are discussed.

An attachment theory perspective on the proposed matrix model

The matrix model (C.R. Snyder & T.R. Elliott, this issue, pp. 1033-1054) advocates an increased grounding of clinical psychology graduate students in theory. The matrix model is theory-based in the ways that it advances this goal. Accordingly, evaluating the matrix model from an extant theoretical perspective should shed light on its applicability and utility as an educational framework. The present attachment theory perspective on the matrix model demonstrates that it meets its stated goals in that it possesses adequate (a) breadth in incorporating theory from across subdisciplines in psychology, and (b) depth in how it facilitates conceptualizing clients and research participants at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and societal levels. The benefits for incorporating the matrix model in clinical psychology graduate programs are discussed.

Spirituality, Self-Representations, and Attachment to Parents: A Longitudinal Study of Roman Catholic College Seminarians

The author used an attachment theory framework to explore relationships between early attachment to parents and seminarians' later self-representations and relationship with God. Attachment to mother was a key variable in predicting seminarians' level of self-esteem and internalized shame as well as the quality of their relationship with God. This study suggests that a secure relationship with God may, over time, have a moderating effect on low self-esteem. Furthermore, an individual's style of early attachment to mother may influence the quality of later spiritual experiences in relation to God. Implications for counseling are discussed from the perspective of attachment theory.

Terror of Desire: The Etiology of Eating Disorders from an Attachment Theory Perspective

A variety of social, emotional and physical factors have been suggested as contributing to or causing the development of eating disorders. Cultural pressures, family dysfunction, sexual abuse, genetics, and chemical imbalance have all been offered as possibilities. There is one comprehensive theory, which has been given little attention in the literature of eating disorders, which seems to me to provide a useful framework for illuminating how each of these factors contributes to these painful and potentially dangerous disorders. Each of these factors can be understood as a form or effect of attachment disruption or disturbance. In my own experience of sixteen years treating eating disorders, this perspective has greatly enhanced my ability to take an effective therapeutic stance with these challenging patients. Attachment theory is the name given to the body of work that describes the process of bonding between mother and infant, and the consequences, primarily to the infant, of the disruption of that bond. It describes the patterns of human behavior “that serve to assure those physical and psychological intermeshings of individuals that enhance survival” (Stern, 1985, p. 137). The work of John Bowlby is the cornerstone of attach-

Anna's story: A qualitative analysis of an at-risk mother's experience in an attachment-based foster care program

This study chronicles an at-risk mother's experience in an alternative foster care program. Influenced by attachment theory, the Children's Ark reunited children with their mothers in a supervised home environment while also providing residential support, intensive therapy, and education. After losing custody of her infant Kindra1, 18-year-old Anna1 participated in the Ark for 2 years, after which she regained custody of Kindra. We assessed Anna and Kindra at multiple times using a variety of instruments, including a semi-structured interview, the Adult Attachment Interview, and the Strange Situation procedure. Anna moved from a profoundly insecure state of mind to a secure one, while Kindra moved from a resistant to a secure attachment. Qualitative analyses of Anna's interviews documented growth in her capacity to use the important relationships at the Ark as secure bases and to welcome rather than fear intimacy with Kindra. The qualitative analyses also described growth in Anna's capacities for reflective functioning and positive changes in her internal working model. We conclude with an analysis of the process of change from the perspective of attachment theory.