Permeable Pavement Systems Research Articles

Spatial Analysis of the Water Harvesting Potential of Permeable Pavements in Australia

An increase in impermeable surface areas with urban development contributes to the rapid and large amount of surface runoff during rainfall. This often requires higher capacity stormwater collection systems, which can cause stress on the existing drainage system and this subsequently contributes to urban flooding. However, urban runoff can be reduced and managed for flood control and converted into a useful resource by harvesting and reusing the water. This can be achieved by switching from impermeable to permeable pavements. However, the amount of stormwater that can be harvested in a permeable pavement system depends on many factors, including rainfall, the water reuse demand and the materials used. This research aims to assess the requirements for permeable pavement design across Australia to balance demand, runoff reduction and construction requirements. A design approach employing the hydrological effects of the infiltration system was adopted for the analysis, along with a spatial analysis for a probabilistic prediction. A relationship was also established to predict a probable design thickness of pavement for various parameters. The research showed that in most Australian cities, for a 120 mm permeable pavement thickness, 40–80% of rainfall-runoff could be harvested, meeting about 10–15% of domestic water demand. The approach developed in this study can be useful for screening the potential of permeable pavements for water harvesting and for predicting spatially where a circular economic approach can be more efficient.

Effects of subbase materials on phosphorous attenuation in permeable pavement system and correlation between pollution attenuation and subbase materials

AbstractIn this study, laboratory models of six permeable pavement system (PPS) columns with various subbase configurations were examined for phosphorus attenuation. Experiments were carried out under varying intensities and durations of rainfall to investigate possible PPS modifications to enhance the performance of phosphorus attenuation and the likelihood of phosphorus leaching back to infiltration. The results show the inefficiencies of phosphate attenuation in the conventional PPS structure. During long‐duration rainfall events, phosphates can be leached back to the infiltrate through the conventional PPS structure. The intensity of rainfall affects the attenuation of total phosphorus through the six permeable pavement columns. To achieve an enhanced phosphate attenuation, the findings of this study suggest modifying the PPS structure by incorporating thin sand layers in the subbase. Also, the correlation between pollutant attenuation and subbase materials is found. Finally, design modification of PPS is recommended to enhance the pollutant attenuation capacity of the PPS.

Permeable Pavement Systems for Effective Management of Stormwater Quantity and Quality: A Bibliometric Analysis and Highlights of Recent Advancements

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the field of permeable pavement systems (PPS), especially in the scope of stormwater management as a sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS). In this study, a comprehensive bibliometric analysis followed by a systematic review were conducted to capture the nature and evolution of literature, intellectual structure networks, emerging themes, and knowledge gaps in the field of PPS. Relevant publications over 22 years (2000–2021) were retrieved from the Web of Science database for analysis. Results revealed that slight modifications within the PPS layers or incorporation of innovative filters could result in improved contaminant removal efficiency. Impermeable soils and PPS pore size were the main limiting factors affecting the permeability and infiltration rates. A combination of maintenance procedures was presented and proven effective in mitigating clogging effects, mostly occurring at the upper 1.5–2.5 cm of the PPS. Although partial replacement of the PPS mix design with recycled aggregates improved the overall permeability, the compressive strength was slightly compromised. The present study also discusses several evolving aspects for water quality improvements, innovative investigations that include recycled aggregates, and other lessons learned and future research directions in the area of PPS. Findings from the conducted analysis provide researchers, designers, urban planners, and even municipalities with research gaps and technical deficiencies in implementing and investigating PPS.

Comparison of Runoff Control Performance by Five Permeable Pavement Systems in Zhenjiang, Yangtze River Delta of China

Comparison of Runoff Control Performance by Five Permeable Pavement Systems in Zhenjiang, Yangtze River Delta of China

Hydrological and water quality performance of Waste Tire Permeable Pavements: Field monitoring and numerical analysis

Permeable pavements can reduce the amount of surface runoff and peak flow rate and delay the occurrence of peak flow by allowing water to infiltrate underground similar to natural undeveloped catchments. Such suite of benefits of permeable pavements have made them one of the preferred stormwater control measures in most of the integrated land and water programs. Waste tire permeable pavements (WTPPs), as a relatively new permeable pavement technology, are designed with a surface layer made of up to 50% recycled tire particles. This study aims to investigate the hydrological performance of WTPPs to divert surface runoff and their impact on water quality. A large-scale trial in Australia was constructed and a comprehensive field performance monitoring program including double-ring infiltrometer tests and water quality testing was conducted to evaluate the performance of WTPP in real field conditions. Quality assurance tests on samples of the WTPP surface layer were conducted for permeability in the laboratory, and numerical simulations were done to estimate the surface runoff and investigate the sensitivity of the results to important design parameters. The physically-based models used for numerical simulations were developed in MUSIC X by replicating the layers of the constructed permeable pavement system as well as the impervious part of the trial site. The results indicated that the constructed system is capable of mitigating the surface runoff from the studied site, although only 25% of the discharge area was covered with WTPP. The infiltration rate of the WTPP over nine months with and without maintenance was studied. The results revealed that the infiltration rates even in areas without maintenance after nine months were found to be above the recommended values from ASCE permeable pavements task committee, but lower than the areas that were regularly maintained highlighting the importance of a regular maintenance regime for permeability recovery over time. Water quality tests were done on samples taken over a 17 month-long period indicating that the WTPP system successfully reduced most of the studied pollutants and chemical indicators, including most of the heavy metals, total suspended solids (69%) and turbidity (88%) by physically filtering the water.

Sawdust Recycling in the Development of Permeable Clay Paving Bricks: Optimizing Mixing Ratio and Particle Size

The permeable pavement system (PPS) has effectively contributed to stormwater management as a low-impact development (LID) technology. The suitability of clay bricks, consolidated with waste materials, for sustainable PPS applications in urban infrastructure needs further attention. In this study, several series of permeable clay paving bricks samples were prepared by mixing different ratios and particle sizes of sawdust (SD) with clay soil and firing at 900 °C. The raw soil and SD samples were characterized through sieve analysis, X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The bricks were tested for their compressive strength, bulk density, apparent porosity, water adsorption, permeability coefficient, and stormwater treatment efficiency. The clay soil comprised 17.5% clay/silt with appropriate amounts of SiO2 (50.47%), Al2O3 (19.14%), and fluxing agents (15.34%) and was suitable for brick manufacturing. XRD and FTIR analysis revealed that the soil predominantly comprises quartz, dolomite calcite, feldspar, kaolinite, illite, and chlorites. The SD samples were enriched with amorphous and crystalline cellulose. The compressive strength of the bricks decreased, while the permeability of the bricks increased with an increasing percentage of SD. An optimal percentage of 10% SD achieved a 21.2 MPa compressive strength and a 0.0556 m/s permeability coefficient, meeting the ASTM specifications for PPS. The optimal size of SD, between 0.5 and 1.0 mm, achieved the desired compressive strength of the bricks. The permeable bricks effectively removed the total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, and BOD5 from the stormwater, which complies with the guidelines for wastewater reuse applications.

An experimental comparison between different types of surface patterns of permeable interlocking concrete pavement for roadway subsurface drainage

In dense-graded pavements, which are used for composing and recomposing roads in the paving industry around the world, failures occur due to increasing traffic loads and the rising runoff of water caused by storms or floods, or any other reason. Therefore, this kind of issue can be treated by adopting a permeable pavement system such as the permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) to manage the runoff of water and tolerate the increasing loads of traffic efficiently. In this study, a laboratory apparatus has been designed and fabricated as an artificial rainfall simulator to investigate the behavior of different surface concrete block patterns under different rainfall intensities. Measuring the levels of runoff and the volume of infiltrated water are the fundamental factors in creating an essential comparison between the elected surface patterns. In this study, stretcher bond, 90º herringbone, and 45° herringbone patterns are chosen with (5 mm and 10 mm) joint spacing between the concrete blocks. All three surface block patterns are tested in terms of four longitudinal slopes (0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%) and three side slopes (0%, 2.5%, and 5%) under three rainfall intensities (25 l/min, 50 l/min, and 75 l/min). Based on the results, the stretcher bond pattern showed superior results to other bonds because it reduces surface runoff and spreads the water evenly under the permeable concrete block roadway. The 90° herringbone and 45° herringbone patterns, on the other hand, are the best for increasing the durability of roads.

Permeable Asphalt Hydraulic Conductivity and Particulate Matter Separation With XRT

Permeable asphalt (PA) is a composite material with an open graded mix design that provides a pore structure facilitating stormwater infiltration. PA is often constructed as a wearing course for permeable pavements and on impervious pavements to reduce aquaplaning and noise. The pore structure of PA functions as a filter promoting particulate matter (PM) separation. The infiltrating flow characteristics are predominately dependent on pore diameter and pore interconnectivity. X-Ray microTomography (XRT) has successfully estimated these parameters that are otherwise difficult to obtain through conventional gravimetric methods. Pore structure parameters allow modeling of hydraulic conductivity (k) and filtration mechanisms; required to examine the material behavior for infiltration and PM separation. In this study, pore structure parameters were determined through XTR for three PA mixture designs. Additionally, the Kozeny-Kovàv model was implemented to estimate k. PM separation was evaluated using a pore-to-PM diameter categorical model. This filtration mechanism model was validated with data from a rainfall simulator. The filtration model provided a good correlation between measured and modeled data. The identification of filtration mechanisms and k facilitate the design and evaluation of permeable pavement systems as a best management practice (BMP) for runoff volume and peak flow as well as PM and PM-partitioned chemical separation.

Comparison between different infiltration models to describe the infiltration of permeable brick pavement system via a laboratory-scale experiment.

The permeable brick pavement system (PBPs) is one of a widely used low impact development (LID) measures to alleviate runoff volume and pollution caused by urbanization. The performance of PBPs on decreasing runoff volume is decided by its permeability, and it was general described by hydraulic conductivity based on Darcy's law. But there is large error when using hydraulic conductivity to describe the infiltration of PBPs, and which infiltration process is not following Darcy's law, so it is important to find more accurate infiltration models to describe the infiltration of PBPs. The Horton, Philip, Green-Ampt, and Kostiakov infiltration models were selected to find an optimal model to investigate infiltration performance of PBPs via a laboratory-scale experiment, and the maximum absolute error (MAE), Bias, and coefficient of determination (R2) were selected to evaluate the models' errors via fitting with experiment data. The results showed that the fitting accuracy of Kostiakov, Philip, and Green-Ampt models was significantly affected by the monitoring area and hydraulic gradients. Meanwhile, Horton model fitted well (MAE = 0.25-0.32 cm/h, Bias = 0.07-0.11 cm/h, and R2 = 0.98-0.99) with the experiment data, and the parameters of the Horton model often can be achieved by monitoring, such as the maximum infiltration rate and the stable infiltration rate. Therefore, the Horton model is an optimal model to describe the infiltration performance of PBPs, which can also be adopted to evaluate hydrological characterization of PBPs.

Implementation of the stormwater management system in Almaty based on the experience of the united states

This article presents the results of a study of the effectiveness of reducing storm runoff of a permeable pavement system based on the experience of the United States (Minnesota) in stormwater management. The purpose of this article is to identify the most appropriate technology in the process of implementing stormwater management for the city of Almaty. This article uses the methods of reviewing the literature data and calculations on stormwater runoff using the BMP MIDS Calculator tool.

Evaluation of permeable highway pavements via an integrated life-cycle model

This study details the development of integrated, probabilistic life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) models to evaluate the cost and environmental impacts of permeable highway pavements. The model characterizes the effect of highway runoff pollution and quantifies ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and global warming environmental impacts in addition to life-cycle costs. The model is applied in a practical, real-world highway case study located in British Columbia alongside an important freshwater lake. Decision-makers in this context are particularly concerned around impact factors (e.g., eutrophication and toxicity) commonly unreported in pavement LCA studies. The case study results show that, while the proposed permeable pavement systems cost an average of 40% more over their life-cycle, they can reduce expected ecotoxicity and eutrophication runoff impacts by 33%–72%. The findings of this study suggest that permeable highway pavement materials are potentially a viable, low impact development technology near aquatic ecosystems.

Investigation of Mechanical and Hydrologic Characteristics of Porous Asphalt Pavement with a Geocell Composite.

Porous asphalt pavement is a part of the permeable pavement system, which can be used to mitigate the negative impacts of urbanisation on the water hydrological cycle and environment. This study aims to assess the mechanical and hydrologic characteristics of porous asphalt pavements, with and without geocell composites, using a plate load test, falling weight deflectometer test, and rainfall simulation test. The corresponding results indicate that the elastic modulus of the unreinforced pavement is lower than that of the reinforced pavement. The analysis demonstrates that the use of geocell composites effectively increases the load-bearing capacity of the pavement. When the base layer is reinforced with geocells, its load-bearing capacity increases. Observation of the rainfall simulation tests on the reinforced pavement indicates that the reinforced pavement effectively handles the surface runoff.

GAS TRANSPORT PARAMETERS OF RECYCLED CONCRETE AND CLAY BRICK AGGREGATE BLENDED WITH AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE GRAINS

Gas diffusivity (Dp/D0: the ratio of gas diffusion coefficient, Dp, to gas diffusion in free air, D0) and air permeability (ka), and their variations with air-filled porosity (e) play key roles in surface gas exchange and vapor transport in permeable pavement and water-retentive pavement systems. This study carried out a series of laboratory measurements of Dp/D0 and ka for graded recycled concrete (RC) and clay brick (RCB) aggregates, and RC and RCB blended with autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) grains at proportions of 20% and 40%. The tested samples were saturated after compaction, and the Dp/D0 and ka were measured during the drying process from saturation to air-dry. Results showed that Dp/D0 and ka of graded RC and RCB decreased most with increased proportions of AAC grains; in particular, the effect of AAC blending on Dp/D0(e) relationships decreased. For most tested samples, pore-connectivity factor and diffusion-based tortuosity (T) gradually increased with drying, and T values were decreased slightly by blending with AAC grains. Equivalent pore diameter for gas flow values of graded RC and RCB showed a clear decrease with drying; on the other hand, those of AAC blended RC and RCB did not depend on e. Combining previous models and fitted T(e) relations for tested samples, the Dp/D0(e) relations and MLWs for ka(e) captured well the values of graded RC and RCB blended with AAC grains, implying that the previous gas transport parameter models would be useful for quick assessment of roadbed materials.

A Systematic Review of the Hydrological, Environmental and Durability Performance of Permeable Pavement Systems

Due to urbanization, large portions of vegetated territory have been replaced by waterproof surfaces. The consequences are greater outflows, lower infiltration, and lower evapotranspiration. Pavement systems made with permeable surfaces allow the infiltration of water, ensuring reduction of runoff volume. In this paper, the methods of analysis of the hydrological and environmental performance of the pavement systems are reviewed in the context of urban drainage and regarding their durability. The purpose is to present an overview of the studies published during the last decade in the field. The Pubmed and Web Science Core Collection electronic databases were used to conduct the scientific literature survey. This generated 1238 papers, of which only 17 met the criteria and were included and discussed in this review. The evidence drawn from the knowledge on which the document is based provides useful critical interpretations of existing studies to progress the current understanding on hydrological performance and environment impacts in terms of conventional pollutant removal efficiency and the current permeable pavement systems.

Minimize surface runoff from parking lots with permeable pavement systems

Changes in land use can lead to an increased risk of flooding in an area. One example of flood conditions due to land use change is that occurred in the Diponegoro University Campus area in Tembalang. Most parking lots in this area comprises of conventional paving block system. It is basically a permeable pavement types, but in reality, existing conventional paving block systems cannot infiltrate storm water into the soil. There are two possible causes: first, the type of paving block is not a permeable type of concrete paving block and the second is the open graded base (OGB) and subbase do not have a high permeability, or a combination of both. This condition generates stormwater runoff in this area to be high, and causes on site and/or out side inundation. In this study, permeable paving block system (P2BS) was developed to find the parking lots with zero runoff.

Predicting Multiple Properties of Pervious Concrete through the Gaussian Process Regression

Abstract Pervious concrete creates a very porous medium that allows water to penetrate the pavement to underlying soils. It is a promising candidate in permeable pavement systems in urban areas, which could be an efficient solution to sustainable drainage systems. Concrete mixture design usually requires labor-intensive and time-consuming work, which involves a significant amount of “trial batching” approaches. Recently, machine learning methods have demonstrated that a robust model might help reduce the experimental work. Thus, we develop the Gaussian process regression (GPR) model to shed light on the relationship between predictors (nominal coarse aggregate sizes, cement content, water-to-cement ratios, and coarse aggregates content) and each of the different properties (density, compressive strength, tensile strength, and porosity) of pervious concrete. The modeling approach has a high degree of accuracy and stability, contributing to fast, low-cost estimations of multiple properties of pervious concrete.

Performance of permeable pavement systems on stormwater permeability and pollutant removal

Permeable pavement is an effective means for stormwater runoff control and pollutant removal. However, relatively few studies have examined the characteristics of permeable brick and corresponding permeable pavement system (PPS). In this work, the permeable pavement systems consisted of surface permeable brick layer (concrete or ceramic) with structural layer (including a cement mortar layer, a permeable concrete layer, and a gravel layers) were selected as typical cases to assess their permeability and runoff pollutant removal performance by laboratory experiments. The results indicated that PPS had obvious outflow hysteresis effect. The PPS with ceramic brick layer reached the saturation flow rate earlier and showed larger outflow rate than that with concrete brick layer. Both types of PPSs had a relatively high efficiency (83.8-95.2%) in removing suspended solids (SS) in stormwater runoff mainly due to the interception and filtration of the surface brick layer, whereas the structural layer of the PPS played a vital role in the removal of total phosphorus (TP). The percentage of total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency via ceramic brick layer accounted for via corresponding PPS was obviously larger than that of concrete brick layer. The PPS also displayed a certain chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal ability: around 14.0-27.0% for concrete type and 20.9-28.9% for ceramic type. Subsequently, a multi-objective evaluation model was implemented based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method to identify the optimal scheme in relation to four indices: permeability, environmental benefit, compressive strength, and comprehensive economic cost. The results showed, insofar, the ceramic PPS is preferred with a better economic performance. Our study attempts to select optimal designs of PPS and provides insight into the permeable capacity and the efficiency of pollutant removal in PPS.

Pervious concrete: the art of improving strength properties

Urban cities in Malaysia are highly vulnerable to flash floods due to improper drainage system and the impermeable road surface. The Pervious Concrete (PC) Pavement for urban water management indicates the implementation of this system shows promising results to reduce flash flood volume and among the mitigation that can be applied is by adopting the permeable pavement systems. This was based on a case study of Sponge City in China. Since the properties normally consist of coarse aggregate only / or less fine aggregate to fill in the void structure. Regardless of the high advantage of these systems to reduce the flooding impact, this permeable pavement is known for its lower strength. Due to this fact, it is rare and impossible for this permeable pavement to be utilized at the main road and highway. Whereas, currently in Malaysia, the permeable concrete is only accustomed to light traffic loadings such as walkways and car park. This paper was discussing the way to improve the strength properties of PC pavements with a focus on sustainable development.

The simplified design method of permeable pavement system for urban catchment

Climate change increases the probability of extreme rainfall events, which results in large-scale flooding in urban areas. Yet, urban areas are often too crowded to build flood detention facilities. To cope with this issue, this study developed a simplified design method of a permeable pavement system. Firstly, the detention volume calculation method for the underground detention pond was established. Secondly, a novel permeable pavement system named JW pavement was used as an example to verify the feasibility of the development method for the underground detention pond. Thirdly, the surface infiltration rate and the void ratio of a gravel layer were measured. Finally, the equation of the thickness required for the gravel layer was established based on the requirement of flood detention volume. To sum up, the thicker a gravel layer is, the more capable a gravel layer is to protect the city from flooding. The urban flood can be reduced by the combination of a high surface infiltration rate permeable pavement system and a thick underground detention pond.

Evaluation of modified permeable pavement systems with coal gangue to remove typical runoff pollutants under simulated rainfall.

Coal gangue (CG) as mineral waste was properly treated and applied as the filter media in permeable pavement systems due to its good sorption ability and mechanical strength. Batch experiments show the maximum adsorption capacity of calcined CG to phosphorus could reach 2.63 mg/g. To evaluate the removal effect of typical runoff pollutants including chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and ammonia (NH4+-N), the gravel and sand in a traditional pavement system were replaced by CG respectively. The leaching behavior of the four pollutants in CG modified systems is limited and comparable with traditional system, indicating pretreated CG as filler would not cause environmental risk. CG-based pavement systems improved the removal efficiency of the four pollutants especially for TP. The removal mechanisms including interception, adsorption and microorganism degradation. The removal rates of COD, NH4+-N and TN by CG modified and traditional systems decreased with rainfall duration, while it is not obviously changed with rainfall recurrence period and drying period. Overall, the permeable pavement with CG layers that replaced both sand and gravel layers show best removal efficiency of all pollutants investigated especially for TP (>95%). This study provides a new way for CG utilization and gives the reference for the process design of permeable pavement.