Permanent Grassland Research Articles

Relative hierarchy of farming practices affecting the fatty acid composition of permanent grasslands and of the derived bulk milk

This study aimed (i) to assess the relative weight of different predicting variables, related to site and grassland characteristics, in determining the fatty acid (FA) composition of permanent grasslands and (ii) to verify if and at which extent the same variables have a significant predicting role for the FA composition of the derived bulk cow milk.Available data collected from 2003 to 2016 by three European research institutions were used. A dataset (n = 144) was built up including: (i) the proximate and FA compositions of herbage, (ii) site altitude and climatic conditions, (iii) grasslands botanical composition (main family groups), herbage phenology and growing cycle, (iv) herd characteristics and (v) milk gross and FA compositions.Prediction models for herbage FA profile were highly reliable (R2 adjusted ≥ 0.80) for C18:3 n3, total monounsaturated FA and total polyunsaturated FA (Σ PUFA). Reliable predictions (R2 adjusted ≥ 0.60) were obtained for the other main herbage FA. The relative predicting weight was higher for phenology and proximate composition than for botanical composition. Among proximate composition variables, dry matter showed the highest relative weight in determining the majority of the predicting models.Prediction models for milk FA profile were reliable (R2 adjusted ≥ 0.60) for Σ de novo FA, C16:0, C18:3 n3, total even-chain saturated FA (Σ ECFA), Σ PUFA and the C18:1 c9/C16:0 ratio, while they were moderately reliable (R2 adjusted ≥ 0.50) for C18:1 t10+t11, C18:2 n6, C18:2 c9t11 and the C18:2 n6/C18:3 n3 ratio. Diet composition, site altitude and grazed grassland features concurred to predict milk FA. Fresh herbage proportion in the diet played a relevant role in determining the milk proportion of several FA. Phenology was the main driver for the C18:2 c9t11 and Σ PUFA proportions, negatively affecting them. Herbage phenology fitted milk FA better than proximate and botanical compositions.

Inter- and intraspecific variability of plant individual growth and its role on species ranking in grasslands

Abstract Aims Individual growth constitutes a major component of individual fitness. However, measuring growth rates of herbaceous plants non-destructively at the individual level is notoriously difficult. This study, based on an accurate non-destructive method of aboveground biomass estimation, aims to assess individual relative growth rates (RGRs) of some species, identify its environmental drivers and test its consequences on community patterning. We specifically address three questions: (i) to what extent environmental conditions explain differences in individual plant growth between sites, (ii) what is the magnitude of intraspecific variability of plant individual growth within and between sites and (iii) do species-averaged (dis-)advantage of individual growth compared with the whole vegetation within a site correlate with species ranking at the community level? Methods We monitored the growth of individuals of four common perennial species in 18 permanent grasslands chosen along a large pedoclimatic gradient located in the Massif Central, France. We measured soil properties, levels of resources and meteorological parameters to characterize environmental conditions at the site level. This design enables us to assess the influence of environmental conditions on individual growth and the relative extent of inter-individual variability of growth explained within and between sites. We determined the ranking of each of the four species in each site with botanical surveys to assess the relationship between species-averaged growth (dis-)advantage relative to the whole community and species rank in the community. Important Findings We found that environmental conditions explain a significant proportion of individual growth variability, and that this proportion is strongly variable between species. Light availability was the main driver of plant growth, followed by rainfall amount and potential evapotranspiration, while soil properties had only a slight effect. We further highlighted a moderate to high within-site inter-individual variability of growth. We finally showed that there was no correlation between species ranking and species-averaged individual growth.

Floristic Diversity and Pastoral Value of Permanent Grassland Fertilized in Conventional and Organic System

Permanent grassland is the most complex natural ecosystem due to the biodiversity of the structural and functional elements that characterize the space and time unit of this ecosystem. From this point of view, in the case of this ecosystem, biodiversity is manifested by the richness of species as a result of the interactions between species and the biotope, the interspecific relations and the effects of the technology and usage applied to the improvement of these surfaces. The paper presents the results obtained in an experimental device placed on a permanent grassland of Festuca valesiaca + Festuca rupicola, from Caraş-Severin County, under conditions of mineral and organic fertilizers application (sheep manure and direct fertilization by sheep folding).

Variability in greenhouse gas emission intensity of semi-intensive suckler cow beef production systems

Emission intensities from beef production vary both among production systems (countries) and farms within a country depending upon use of natural resources and management practices. A whole-farm model developed for Norwegian suckler cow herds, HolosNorBeef, was used to estimate GHG emissions from 27 commercial beef farms in Norway with Angus, Hereford, and Charolais cattle. HolosNorBeef considers direct emissions of methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from on-farm livestock production and indirect N2O and CO2 emissions associated with inputs used on the farm. The corresponding soil carbon (C) emissions are estimated using the Introductory Carbon Balance Model (ICBM). The farms were distributed across Norway with varying climate and natural resource bases. The estimated emission intensities ranged from 22.5 to 45.2 kg CO2 equivalents (eq) (kg carcass)−1. Enteric CH4 was the largest source, accounting for 44% of the total GHG emissions on average, dependent on dry matter intake (DMI). Soil C was the largest source of variation between individual farms and accounted for 6% of the emissions on average. Variation in GHG intensity among farms was reduced and farms within region East, Mid and North re-ranked in terms of emission intensities when soil C was excluded. Ignoring soil C, estimated emission intensities ranged from 21.5 to 34.1 kg CO2 eq (kg carcass)−1. High C loss from farms with high initial soil organic carbon (SOC) content warrants further examination of the C balance of permanent grasslands as a potential mitigation option for beef production systems.

Biodiversity in intensive and extensive grasslands in Finland: the impacts of spatial and temporal changes of agricultural land use

Biodiversity degradation is a national and global problem which is interconnected with land use and climate change. All these are major unsolved questions and their interactions are only partly understood. Agriculture and especially cattle farming is under keen societal focus because of its significant role in soil carbon losses, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biodiversity preservation. We reviewed the Finnish scientific literature to assess the impact of intensive contra extensive grass production on biodiversity using vascular plants, vertebrates, invertebrates and soil biota. Still a few decades ago, mixed farming was prevailing almost everywhere in Finland, but nowadays cereal production is essentially clustered in the southwest and milk and beef production in the northeast. This is reflected in the distribution of intensive (connected with cattle) and extensive grasslands (both types of farming). The bird community was most abundant and species rich in farmland which provides small fields in large blocks of farmland and many kinds of crops, including both intensive and extensive grasslands. Overall permanent grasslands with rather simply vegetation diversity can maintain a diverse community of spiders and leafhoppers, and act as overwintering habitat for polyphagous predators in field ecosystems. The ecological requirement of all species and species groups are probably never met at one site and consequently target should be in having differently managed areas at regional scale. For some of the taxa, ecosystem services could be indicated, but a research-based quantitative assessment is available only for carbon sequestration and weak impact of dung-beetles in diminishing GHG emissions from cow pats. Our review demonstrated that quite much is known about biodiversity in extensively managed grasslands, but very little in intensively managed grasslands. An important question is whether there is some threshold for the proportion of grasslands under which regional biodiversity will be reduced. Intensive production offers limited value to replace the high biodiversity value of semi-natural pastures.

Effect of chemical and mechanical grassland conversion to cropland on soil mineral N dynamics and N2O emission

Grassland conversion to cropland bears a risk of increased nitrate (NO3−) leaching and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission due to enhanced nitrogen (N) mineralization. This study investigates the dynamics of mineral N and N2O emissions following chemical and mechanical conversion from permanent grassland to cropland (maize) at two sites with different texture (clayey loam and sandy loam) and fertilization regime (with and without mineral N-fertilization) over a two-year period. Soil mineral N levels increased shortly after conversion and remained elevated in converted plots compared to permanent grassland or long-term cropland in the second year of investigation. Fluxes of N2O were higher from converted plots than permanent grassland or cropland. However, soil mineral N contents and cumulative N2O emissions did not differ between conversion types. Only the distribution of N2O losses over the two years differed: while losses were of similar magnitude in both years in mechanically converted plots, the major part of N2O loss in chemically converted plots occurred in the first year after conversion while emissions approximated grassland level in the second year. N2O fluxes were mainly controlled by water-filled pore space and soil NO3− levels. Despite differences in N levels at the two sites, these key findings are similar on both study sites. They indicate strongly accelerated mineralization after conversion, an effect that still lasted in the converted plots at the end of the two-year investigation irrespective of the conversion type used.

Global warming shifts the composition of the abundant bacterial phyllosphere microbiota as indicated by a cultivation-dependent and -independent study of the grassland phyllosphere of a long-term warming field experiment.

The leaf-colonizing bacterial microbiota was studied in a long-term warming experiment on a permanent grassland, which had been continuously exposed to increased surface temperature (+2°C) for more than six years. Two abundant plant species, Arrhenatherum elatius and Galium album, were studied. Surface warming reduced stomata opening and changed leaf metabolite profiles. Leaf surface colonization and the concentration of leaf-associated bacterial cells were not affected. However, bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicon Illumina sequencing showed significant temperature effects on the plant species-specific phyllosphere microbiota. Warming partially affected the concentrations of cultured bacteria and had a significant effect on the composition of most abundant cultured plant species-specific bacteria. The abundance of Sphingomonas was significantly reduced. Sphingomonas isolates from warmed plots represented different phylotypes, had different physiological traits and were better adapted to higher temperatures. Among Methylobacterium isolates, a novel phylotype with a specific mxaFtype was cultured from plants of warmed plots while the most abundant phylotype cultured from control plots was strongly reduced. This study clearly showed a correlation of long-term surface warming with changes in the plant physiology and the development of a physiologically and genetically adapted phyllosphere microbiota.

Restricting the eligible maintenance practices of permanent grassland - a realistic way towards more active farming?

Restricting the eligible maintenance practices of permanent grassland - a realistic way towards more active farming?

Sward lifting in compacted grassland: Contrasting effects on two different soils

Soil compaction can affect the productivity of permanent grassland. The effectiveness of methods to alleviate compaction depends on compaction level and soil type. We applied sward lifting in compacted grassland on a sandy loam and a heavy clay soil and measured effects on soil characteristics, grass roots, and grass productivity for a period of up to 32 months. Our results show that sward lifting improved soil structure in the heavily compacted sandy loam for at least 31 months. This led to an improvement in water drainage; sward-lifted plots dried up an estimated 10 days earlier than control plots in spring 2017. A likely earlier start of root growth resulted in a higher grass herbage yield (+12% to +22%) and nitrogen (N) uptake (+13% to +22%) in three first growth periods but in only relatively small gains over the entire experimental period (+4% and +8%, respectively). The higher herbage N uptake on sward-lifted plots over the experimental period (+76 kg N ha−1) was offset by a small N loss (−67 kg N ha−1) from the 0–30 cm soil layer. On the heavy clay, sward lifting also improved soil structure and rooting, but effects were smaller and shorter-lived, and herbage yield and N uptake tended to be lower over the entire experimental period (−6% and −5%, respectively). Here, the lower N uptake on sward-lifted plots over the experimental period (−43 kg N ha−1) was accompanied by a large soil N loss (−613 kg N ha−1). Based on all results, we conclude that sward lifting has limited attractiveness to alleviate compaction in water-retaining sandy soils when average penetration resistance in the topsoil is below 2.8 MPa. Sward lifting should be avoided on smectic clay soils altogether, as these soils have a high natural restoration capacity and sward lifting has more negative than positive effects.

Ensemble modelling of carbon fluxes in grasslands and croplands

Croplands and grasslands are agricultural systems that contribute to land–atmosphere exchanges of carbon (C). We evaluated and compared gross primary production (GPP), ecosystem respiration (RECO), net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO2, and two derived outputs - C use efficiency (CUE=-NEE/GPP) and C emission intensity (IntC= -NEE/Offtake [grazed or harvested biomass]). The outputs came from 23 models (11 crop-specific, eight grassland-specific, and four models covering both systems) at three cropping sites over several rotations with spring and winter cereals, soybean and rapeseed in Canada, France and India, and two temperate permanent grasslands in France and the United Kingdom. The models were run independently over multi-year simulation periods in five stages (S), either blind with no calibration and initialization data (S1), using historical management and climate for initialization (S2), calibrated against plant data (S3), plant and soil data together (S4), or with the addition of C and N fluxes (S5). Here, we provide a framework to address methodological uncertainties and contextualize results. Most of the models overestimated or underestimated the C fluxes observed during the growing seasons (or the whole years for grasslands), with substantial differences between models. For each simulated variable, changes in the multi-model median (MMM) from S1 to S5 was used as a descriptor of the ensemble performance. Overall, the greatest improvements (MMM approaching the mean of observations) were achieved at S3 or higher calibration stages. For instance, grassland GPP MMM was equal to 1632 g C m−2 yr-1 (S5) while the observed mean was equal to 1763 m-2 yr-1 (average for two sites). Nash-Sutcliffe modelling efficiency coefficients indicated that MMM outperformed individual models in 92.3 % of cases. Our study suggests a cautious use of large-scale, multi-model ensembles to estimate C fluxes in agricultural sites if some site-specific plant and soil observations are available for model calibration. The further development of crop/grassland ensemble modelling will hinge upon the interpretation of results in light of the way models represent the processes underlying C fluxes in complex agricultural systems (grassland and crop rotations including fallow periods).

Influence of fishes on macroinvertebrate communities and insect emergence production in intermittent stream refuges

Abstract Drying intermittent stream networks often have permanent water refuges that are important for recolonisation. These habitats may be hotspots for interactions between fishes and invertebrates as they become isolated, but densities and diversity of fishes in these refuges can be highly variable across time and space. Insect emergence from streams provides energy and nutrient subsidies to riparian habitats. The magnitude of such subsidies may be influenced by in‐stream predators such as fishes. We examined whether benthic macroinvertebrate communities, emerging adult insects, and algal biomass in permanent grassland stream pools differed among sites with naturally varying densities of fishes. We also manipulated fish densities in a mesocosm experiment to address how fishes might affect colonisation during recovery from hydrologic disturbance. Fish biomass had a negative impact on invertebrate abundance, but not biomass or taxa richness, in natural pools. Total fish biomass was not correlated with total insect emergence in natural pools, but orangethroat darter (Etheostoma spectabile) biomass was inversely correlated with emerging Chironomidae biomass and individual midge body size. The interaction in our models between predatory fish biomass and date suggested that fishes may also delay insect emergence from natural pools, altering the timing of aquatic–terrestrial subsidies. There was an increase over time in algal biomass (chlorophyll‐a) in mesocosms, but this did not differ among fish density treatments. Regardless, fish presence in mesocosms reduced the abundance of colonising insects and total invertebrate biomass. Mesocosm invertebrate communities in treatments without fishes were characterised by more Chironomidae, Culicidae, and Corduliidae. Results suggest that fishes influence invertebrates in habitats that represent important refuges during hydrologic disturbance, hot spots for subsidy exports to riparian food webs, and source areas for colonists during recovery from hydrologic disturbance. Fish effects in these systems include decreasing invertebrate abundance, shifting community structure, and altering patterns of invertebrate emergence and colonisation.

Regional investigation of spatial-temporal variability of soil magnesium - a case study from Switzerland

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential element for plant growth and human health. Its availability and spatial distribution in soils depends on a wide variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Understanding how Mg availability changes in space and time is crucial for preventing potential deficiencies. In 1987, a soil-monitoring network (FRIBO) was launched in the canton of Fribourg, Switzerland. It was based on 250 sites distributed evenly throughout the canton so as to include a large variety of soil types (Cambisols, Gleysols, Rendzinas, Regosols, Lithosols, Luvisols and Fluvisols) under three different land use types (croplands, permanent grasslands and mountain pastures). The aim of this research was to characterize the spatial and temporal variation of total and available forms of Mg in the agricultural soils of the canton of Fribourg and to discuss potential implications for Mg fertilization management. Total Mg concentration (MgT) averaged 5.5 g kg−1, with small differences between land use types. Spatial distribution of MgT showed higher values on the southern part of the study area, mostly on Rendzinas and Cambisols. Average concentrations of available Mg forms were significantly different according to extraction methods, with water extraction (MgH2O) having the lowest value (14.2 mg kg−1) followed by calcium extraction (MgCaCl2, 109.4 mg kg−1) and ammonium acetate + EDTA extraction (MgAAE, 148.7 mg kg−1). On average, permanent grasslands had significantly higher values for all Mg forms compared to croplands and mountain pastures, a result further corroborated by the analysis of spatial distribution. Intrinsic factors, such as soil type and terrain attributes, appeared to have a major influence on total Mg content, whereas available Mg forms depended mostly on extrinsic factors, such as land use type. Temporal analysis of soil available Mg forms revealed an overall increase between 1987 and 2016, especially after a land use change from croplands to permanent grasslands. In the light of the essential role of Mg for plant growth and development, as well as its critical role in animal health, the status of Mg should continue to be monitored in the FRIBO network and plant analysis should be implemented.

Do biodiversity-ecosystem functioning experiments inform stakeholders how to simultaneously conserve biodiversity and increase ecosystem service provisioning in grasslands?

Two key stakeholders primarily important for nature conservation are farmers (and their lobby groups) and conservationists. Both have substantial inputs into environmental strategies and policies calling for biodiversity conservation aimed to directly increase ecosystem services. The scientific literature concurs that as biological diversity increases so do ecosystem functions and services in grasslands. While the evidence for this is strong, the majority comes from controlled small-scale biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) experiments. Thus, it is unclear whether the scientific basis for implementing BEF relationships into practice is sufficiently evidenced. Here we explore the applicability of findings from BEF experiments to the conservation and management of temperate grassland, a widespread and potentially highly biodiverse habitat. While we acknowledge that BEF research can reveal insights into fundamental mechanisms, the saturation of biodiversity effects at low levels and unrealistic (management) treatments widely impede the applicability of these experimental results to permanent grasslands. Additionally, the integration of BEF research results into practice is considerably hampered by experimental studies not answering stakeholders' crucial questions, e.g. is there evidence of biodiversity conservation potentials? Thus, stakeholders do not have a strong evidence base for taking decisions for the addressed management goals, except intensive production in (species-poor) temporary grasslands. If BEF work is to inform stakeholders future research needs to overcome unrealistic management, missing stakeholder involvement and ineffective communication. A new generation of applied BEF experiments employing applied, multi-actor approaches is needed to facilitate the relevance of BEF research for nature conservation, agriculture and land management.

Visiting dark sides of model simulation of carbon stocks in European temperate agricultural soils: allometric function and model initialization

Predictions of medium to long-term changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks involve simulation models with plant carbon (C) inputs estimated from crop yields using crop harvest indices and allometric scaling involving fixed root-to-shoot ratios. The choice of allometric approach and initial distribution of SOC among model pools is crucial for model estimates. We evaluated the impact of a modified allometric approach for grass leys and initial model set-up using the C-TOOL model. Four European agricultural long-term experiments were considered including three experiments with different frequency of grass leys in the crop rotation and one permanent grassland. The modified allometric function for ley relied on fixed below-ground C input regardless of mineral fertilizer inputs and modified pool initialization involved available site history. Including available, but insufficient, pre-experiment history to adjust the initial set-up of model SOC pools did not improve to the C-TOOL simulations. Changing the allometric approach for ley from fixed shoot-to-root ratios to fixed below-ground C input decreased the soil C input dramatically and improved the C-TOOL simulation of SOC stocks for fertilized treatments in all experiments when combined with standard model set-up. For unfertilized treatments, however, the efficiency of the standard allometric function was superior to the modified one. Our results challenge the prevalent use of allometric approaches based on fixed root-to-shoot in SOC simulation models. The potential of modifying the initial distribution of SOC among model pools by accounting for historic land use remains in the dark.

Productivity and Topsoil Quality of Young and Old Permanent Grassland: An On-Farm Comparison

Renewing agricultural grasslands for improved yields and forage quality generally involves eliminating standing vegetation with herbicides, ploughing and reseeding. However, grassland renewal may negatively affect soil quality and related ecosystem services. On clay soil in the north of the Netherlands, we measured grass productivity and soil chemical parameters of ‘young’ (5–15 years since last grassland renewal) and ‘old’ (>20 years since last grassland renewal) permanent grasslands, located as pairs at 10 different dairy farms. We found no significant difference with old permanent grassland in herbage dry matter yield and fertilizer nitrogen (N) response, whereas herbage N yield was lower in young permanent grassland. Moreover, the young grassland soil contained less soil organic matter (SOM), soil organic carbon (C) and soil organic N compared to the old grassland soil. Grass productivity was positively correlated with SOM and related parameters such as soil organic C, soil organic N and potentially mineralizable N. We conclude that on clay soils with 70% desirable grasses (i.e., Lolium perenne and Phleum pratense) or more, the presumed yield benefit of grassland renewal is offset by a loss of soil quality (SOM and N-total). The current practice of renewing grassland after 10 years without considering the botanical composition, is counter-productive and not sustainable.

‘Greening’ Green Infrastructure. Good Italian Practices for Enhancing Green Infrastructure through the Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was established by the European Community in the 1950s to provide financial support to farmers in member states, increase agricultural productivity by promoting technical progress, and ensure a fair standard of living for farmers. Over time; awareness about the externalities of intensive farming would prompt environmentally friendly practices. These include, in the current programming period 2014–2020, the so-called “greening”, which consists of: (i) crop diversification; (ii) the maintenance of permanent grassland surfaces; and (iii) the availability of 5% of arable land for ecological focus areas devoted to agricultural practices beneficial for the climate and the environment. These provisions, spurred by a decades-long debate that also stresses the importance of creating/restoring ecological connectivity on different scales to counter land fragmentation, are in tune with spatial planning initiatives throughout Europe. Here the point is how to combine these directions with either “ecological networks” (EN), designed as physical corridors to be preserved and enhanced for plants and animals’ mobility needs; or “green infrastructure” (GI), defined on the European level as a “strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services” (European Commission; 2013). While in several European countries environmental measures targeting farmers and ecological networks directed at specific areas have been merged in a place-based approach, Italy is lagging behind. In general, no guidelines have been provided on the national level to support regional paths, while regions and municipalities lack the resources to implement GI. Conversely, while greening policies in the framework of the CAP are properly funded, they lack directions to be efficiently allocated. Against the backdrop of such concerns, this paper frames and reflects upon ongoing practices in three pilot areas in different Italian regions, selected based on desk analysis, in-depth interviews, and direct knowledge. Here, despite or thanks to the legislative framework, experimental approaches have been adopted to harness performance issues in targeted areas through broad participation by public and private stakeholders and multilevel governance schemes, opening possible pathways in view of the forthcoming programming period.

Changes and Interactions between Grassland Ecosystem Soil and Plant Properties under Long-Term Mineral Fertilization

Grasslands intensification by use of mineral fertilization has contributed substantially to the increase in forage production. Intensification, however, can degrade the other beneficial functions or soil properties. The effects of mineral fertilization on soil and plant chemical qualities of a permanent wet grassland (Festucetum pratense association) were investigated in Slovakia. The grassland was treated using 3 different N, P, and K rates of mineral fertilizers in kg. ha−1. yr−1 plus the Control (0NPK) almost over 60-year period (1961–2017). The N, P, and K rates in low NPK treatment (LNPK) were N50, P15.4, and K 41.5, in the medium NPK treatment (MNPK) were N100, P30.8, and K83, and in the high NPK treatment (HNPK) were N200, P 61.6, and K 166, respectively. Overall, soil variables (pH, soil organic carbon, plant-available K) showed the most significant changes. A more balanced development was observed in case of soil total nitrogen, C:N ratio, and plant-available P. ANOVA revealed a significant effect between treatments only on plant-available P. In the case of plant functional group development, long-term mineral addition significantly disfavors legumes and forbs. However, analyses of the botanical composition over the last 5 years showed that legume cover significantly differs only in the HNPK treatment. Plant C:P, N:P, and N:K ratios were significantly reduced when fertilizers were added. In terms of grasslands yields, the highest biomass and content of macronutrients were obtained under the HNPK rates. However, with regard to the quality and quantity of the soil organic matter, the most appropriate treatment has been with the MNPK rates. Our findings demonstrate that medium fertilization seems to be an acceptable compromise to meet both productivity and environmental aspects and to connect ecological benefits with social benefits in the long term.

Cluster Analysis in Assessment of Organic Farms Sustainability. Part II Results of Research

Abstract A modern model of agriculture is based on three orders - organic, social and economic. An attempt was made in this paper to apply cluster analysis for assessment of economic and organic sustainability of organic farms. Factors that statistically influenced a decision on which farms should be recognised as sustainable were indicated. Analyses allow the following conclusion: 1) in organic farming, animal production including cattle breeding and rearing must be based on a high acreage of permanent grasslands; 2) neither the performed production processes nor the level of their automation rate or the level of organic balance do not decide on the production effectiveness, but factors of the surrounding including social factors.

Persecution and statutory protection have driven Rook Corvus frugilegus population dynamics over the past 120 years in NW-Germany

In 1898, the first complete survey of breeding Rooks Corvus frugilegus in all state and municipal forests under the administration of the state of Lower Saxony, NW-Germany, revealed a population of 26,444 pairs. The population in its entirety may be estimated at approx. 30,000–35,000 pairs. With the help of eclectic data corrected according to observation effort, it is possible to trace the development of the population for the subsequent period until 1954, and from 1955 to 2017 to quantify it annually on the basis of complete surveys. The picture emerging from this is of a population decimated by 1976 to 6.5% [2104 ± (SE) 308 pairs] of the 1898 value coupled with considerable diminution of the species’ range. Placing the species under protection from 1 January 1977 resulted in a sustained increase of the population to about 86.4% of the initial value by 2017 [28,064 ± (SE) 1103 pairs]. The period of sharp decline is mainly attributable to the unrestrained persecution (shooting, poisoning, destruction of nests and clutches) to which the species was at that time exposed, a factor which, however, also obscured a number of other contributory biotic and abiotic factors. There are clear differences between the period of persecution and the period of protection with respect both to the ratio of colony number to colony size and to the population development of newly established colonies as well as to their growth rates in the initial phase. There is no doubt that persecution was at the root of the sharp decline, or that statutory protection was the mainspring of the population recovery. The population has developed well since 1977, despite a 45.1% reduction in the proportion of permanent grassland area throughout the country and the conversion of existing grassland to industrially run intensive farmland. At the same time, there has been a considerable increase in the area under maize (silage and energy maize), removing further suitable foraging grounds in the breeding season. This suggests that across Central Europe as a whole the Rook is much more flexible than previously assumed. Statutory protection will, however, remain crucial for the conservation of the population. To retain political support for this protected status, Rook management concepts entailing the establishment of toleration zones for breeding sites are urgently required for urban settlement areas.

Control of Umbelliferae in Grassland and Pasture, a new herbicide containing ArylexTM active

Anthriscus sylvestris is a perennial or biennial herbaceous plant in permanent grassland and pasture. With its half rosette it is able to displace valuable forage grasses and has only a medium feed value. At present, no effective and long-lasting solutions with selective acting herbicides is available against it and other hard-to-control weeds of the Umbelliferae family. ArylexTM active (halauxifen-methyl) is a new active ingredient in the subgroup of aryl picolinates belonging to synthetic auxins. Herbicides containing this active ingredient have been marketed in Germany since 2018 for weed control in cereals. For the use in grassland and pasture GF-3635 is now under development by Corteva Agriscience in Germany and other European countries. It is a premix of Arylex, fluroxypyr and triclopyr and contains at the 1.5 L/ha maximum use rate 10 g/ha Arylex, 300 g/ha Fluroxypyr and 300 g/ha triclopyr. GF-3635 is thus a further development of the Product Starane Ranger® available since 2005, Ranger® since 2012 respectively, with equal amounts of fluroxypyr and triclopyr per hectare. It can be safely applied during the whole vegetation period, does not harm valuable grass species and has no negative impact on yield quantity and Forage quality. GF-3635 controls A. sylvestris, Heracleum sphondylium, Plantago lanceolata, Ranunculus acris, Ranunculus repens, Rumex crispus, Rumex obtusifolius, Taraxacum officinale and Urtica dioica.