Athletic Performance Research Articles

Impact of elbow stiffness on running economy in trained athletes.

Elbow injuries are likely to generate a decreased range of motion (ROM), which might negatively affect athletic performance. To date, the effect of elbow stiffness on endurance running performance has never been studied. We conducted an observational, prospective, cross-over study to examine the impact of elbow stiffness on running economy. Twenty trained athletes performed running economy tests at 12 km·h-1, with and without a limited elbow ROM (flexion: 90°, extension: 45°), imposed by a dynamic brace mimicking a severe elbow stiffness. Relative intensity and performance indexes were measured during a subsequent maximal incremental exercise test. Running economy was measured at 180 ± 10.6 mlO2·km-1·kg-1 with a full ROM, and 180.2 ± 12.3 mlO2·km-1·kg-1 with the limited ROM showing a non-significant 0.1% difference (p = 0.871). Athletes experiencing post-traumatic elbow stiffness can find reassurance in knowing that it does not seem to impact a crucial metric of endurance running performance, namely running economy. Further research could explore elbow movement at different intensities of running, from higher aerobic speeds to sprinting.

Identification of talented athletes in finswimming through anthropometric analysis: systematic review

Background and purpose Physical and anthropometric fitness levels are important aspects in supporting performance improvement and talent development in sports, including finswimming. Measurements of physical fitness and anthropometric levels are widely used to identify talented athletes, including finswimming. However, there is still sparse literature that discusses this topic. This systematic review aims to analyze anthropometric factors related to the sport of finswimming. Material and methods The method used is Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA). The databases were taken from Pubmed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase. Obtained 14 articles which were analyzed through objectives, topic suitability, sample size, research protocol, results, and discussion. Results The results of this study report that height, weight, arm span, upper limb length, and lower leg length are anthropometric variables that affect the performance of finswimming athletes and several other factors such as lower extremity, wrist, and arm span are anthropometric variables that also affect finswimming athletes' achievements. In addition, results can be affected by gender, exercise duration, and exercise frequency. Conclusions Based on the results of the systematic review, it was concluded that anthropometry can be used as a reference in identifying talented athletes in finswimming, especially in the bi-fins competition number by identifying upper limb length, lower leg length, arm length, arm span, age, height, weight, body mass index, body fat percentage, and lean body weight.

The Effect of Tai Chi Quan Training on the Anxiety Levels of Indonesian Junior Table Tennis Athletes

This study aims to find out whether there is an influence of Tai Chi Quan training on the performance of Indonesia's junior table tennis athletes. A total of 20 Indonesia junior table tennis athletes aged 14-18 years were put into an experimental group with taichiquan training. The group that received Tai Chi Quan training was trained for 60 minutes, while the control group continued to practice table tennis as usual. Changes in body conditions such as blood pressure, heart rate, changes in anxiety, feelings of confidence, and performance in playing table tennis are measured before and after training. The results of this study were that there was a change in anxiety level at the test point in the tai chi quan group after exercise, while in the control group there was no increase. There were changes that occurred after the exercise treatment, namely cognitive anxiety (x=-1.85; -18.60%), while in the control group (x=- 0.21; -2.31%). In addition, somatic anxiety (x=-3.35; -27.56%). The self-confidence component was negatively correlated with other variables, where in the tai chi quan group the value increased (x=1.96; 11.27%) while in the control group it decreased (x=-0.27; -1.67%). The conclusion of this study is that sixty minutes of tai chi quan training can reduce the anxiety level of Indonesia's junior table tennis athletes.

Comparison between Warm-Up Protocols in Post-Activation Potentiation Enhancement (PAPE) of Sprint and Vertical Jump Performance in a Female Futsal Team

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to examine the influence of three warm-up protocols, with and without post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE), on sprint and vertical jump performance in female athletes. Twenty-five university futsal athletes were randomly assigned to three protocols: i) Traditional Warm-Up (TWU), involving cardiovascular, coordination exercises, and dynamic stretching; ii) Drop Jump Warm-Up (DJWU), consisting of drop jumps from heights of 30 and 40 cm; and iii) Maximum Isometric Warm-Up (MIWU), with high-intensity isometric contractions held for 10 seconds in a squat position at approximately 130–135 degrees of knee flexion. Tests included the countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ) and a 20-meter sprint (S20). The CMVJ showed a significant increase across all three groups (F(1,72) = 125.312; p < .0001; ηp2 = 0.635), while S20 displayed a significant time reduction only for MIWU (p = .002). Although no significant differences were found between groups, individual analysis revealed significant CMVJ differences for TWU, DJWU, and MIWU (p < .0001). We conclude that PAPE effectiveness varies according to protocol and individual athlete characteristics; however, maximum isometric exercises appear to have a more pronounced effect on PAPE production in sprint performance.

Comparative Analysis of 2-Point Jump Shot and Free Throw Kinematics in High- and Low-Level U18 Male Basketball Players.

Background/Objectives: This study examined the influence of competition level and player position on shooting accuracy and kinematic parameters in U18 male basketball players, focusing on two-point jump shots and free throws. Methods: Thirty-eight higher-level (HL-group) and forty-one lower-level (LL-group) participants, categorized into guard, forward, and center subgroups, completed a two-point basketball shooting test, followed by a free-throw shooting test after a 30 min interval. These tests were administered using a crossover, counterbalanced approach with the Latin square method to ensure effective randomization. Results: The results indicated that the HL group displayed significantly faster (12.5%) shot release times (RTs) and closer-to-optimal 45° (8.1%) ball entry angles (EAs) into the hoop for free throws, as well as superior (24.2%) shot success rates (SSRs) for two-point jump shots compared with the LL group. Across all groups and subgroups, a higher EA was achieved in two-point shots than in free throws, though free throws showed higher SSR. This study found no positional differences in shooting mechanics or performance, suggesting that modern training practices may foster consistency across player roles. Conclusions: These findings emphasize the potential for targeted drills to improve RTs, EAs, and SSRs, especially in LL players. Coaches can apply these insights to enhance shooting mechanics and consistency, thereby elevating performance in young basketball athletes. Future research should investigate the impact of fatigue and defensive pressure on shooting parameters across varied competitive contexts.

Association Among MCT1 rs1049434 Polymorphism, Athlete Status, and Physiological Parameters in Japanese Long-Distance Runners.

Monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) comprise 14 known isoforms, with MCT1 being particularly important for lactate transport. Variations in lactate metabolism capacity and aerobic performance are associated with the T1470A polymorphism in MCT1. We aimed to investigate the frequency of the T1470A polymorphism and compare relevant physiological parameters among long-distance runners, wherein these parameters are fundamental to athletic performance. We included 158 Japanese long-distance runners (LD) and 649 individuals from the general Japanese population (CON). The frequency of the T1470A polymorphism was compared between these groups and across athletic levels using the chi-square test. Additionally, physiological data were collected from 57 long-distance runners, and respiratory gas measurements were obtained using the mixing-chamber method during a graded incremental exercise test. We observed a significant difference between the LD and CON groups in the dominant model and between the sub-28 min group and 28 min or above group in the recessive model. As the competitive level increased, the frequency of the AA genotype also increased. When comparing physiological parameters between the AA genotype and T allele, subjects with the AA genotype showed significantly higher values for oxygen uptake at lactate threshold (p = 0.001), oxygen uptake at onset of blood lactate accumulation (p = 0.01), maximal oxygen uptake (p = 0.005), and maximal blood lactate concentration (p = 0.038). These results suggest that the AA genotype of the T1470A polymorphism of MCT1 is an effective genotype associated with athletic status and aerobic capacity in Japanese long-distance runners.

The impact of sports technology policy in Taiwan: the transformation of relevant organisational and stakeholder relationships

ABSTRACT Taiwan, renowned for its high-tech industrial development, and exemplified by its semiconductor industry, serves as the focal point of this study, which examines the transformative effects and challenges arising from the integration of technology and the formulation of sports technology policies within the elite sports landscape. Employing Actor Network Theory (ANT) as the research framework, a combination of semi-structured interviews involving 15 participants engaged in technology implementation in sports, along with supplementary document analysis, was undertaken. The findings highlight the influence of both domestic and international trends on the Taiwanese Government, which recognises ‘sports technology’ as a pivotal factor in enhancing athletic performance. The Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) has spearheaded endeavours to introduce technology into the sports realm, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration among universities, academia, and industry. Moreover, the Executive Yuan has advocated for inter-ministerial collaboration to facilitate resource integration. How various stakeholders, particularly those in the public sector, private sector, academia, and non-profit sports organisations, can collaboratively sustain an operational and stable network remains a persistent concern in the pursuit of future advancements in sports technology.

A comparative study of kinetic balance and static balance among football, volleyball, basketball, and handball team game players using the Balance Error Scoring System test

Background and purpose To guarantee excellent performance in group games, a careful interaction of kinetic and static balance is required. In these games, players must find the right balance because it affects their dexterity, coordination, and overall gameplay. The research focuses on examining the levels of balance among players participating in various group games and comprehending how these features of balance connect to neuromuscular control and movement mechanics. This study aims to assess the levels of kinetic balance and static balance among players engaged in different group games. The research also seeks to explore variations in kinetic and static balance within teams participating in these games. The research sample comprises athletes from diverse game categories, selected from two faculties of physical education. Materials and Methods In the study, athletes from physical education faculty who competed in a variety of game categories were chosen. 31% of the sample was made up of 66 players from Koya University who represented a range of skill levels and played several different team sports. BESS, or the Balance Error Scoring System, was used to measure balance. The accuracy of this test in determining variables affecting both dynamic and static balance is well known. The BESS exam also offers athletes, particularly those who may be at risk for concussions. Results The results show that participants taking part in particular team games have degrees of dynamic balance that differ noticeably from one another. In contrast, differences in static balance were not substantial in other team games. According to the study, a player's ability to coordinate their muscles neurologically and their static and dynamic balance are related. Additionally, it was discovered that a player's movement mechanics had a significant impact on their overall balancing performance. Conclusions In conclusion, this research underscores the significant influence of sport on balance demands and mechanics. Handball players excel due to their dynamic movements while balancing requirements vary based on factors such as contact, field size, and sport-specific actions. Tailoring training to these sport-specific demands is crucial for optimizing athlete performance and well-being.

Relationship between state anxiety, heart rate variability, and shooting performance in adolescent shooters

ObjectiveBy comparing the differences in pre-competition state anxiety, inter-competition heart rate variability (HRV), and shooting performance of young athletes of different grades, and revealing the correlation between these variables, it provides a potential basis for improving athletes’ shooting performance.MethodsA total of 45 adolescent shooters were selected in Chongqing, China, and completed 40 effective shots at self-pace in real shooting scenes. The pre-competition state anxiety, inter-competition HRV, and shooting performance of the athletes were monitored and evaluated respectively.Results(1) There was a significant difference in the pre-match state anxiety of the adolescent shooters, which showed that the cognitive state anxiety and physical state anxiety of the first-level athletes were significantly lower than those of the second-level athletes, while the state confidence was significantly higher than that of the second-level athletes. (2) There were significant differences in HRV of athletes with different sports levels during the competition, showing that the root mean square differences of the standard deviation (RMSSD), total power (TP), and high-frequency of normal (HFn) of the first-level athletes were significantly higher than those of second-level athletes, while low-frequency of normal (LFn) was significantly lower than the latter. (3) The shooting performance of first-level athletes was significantly better than that of second-level athletes. (4) Among adolescent shooters of different grades, there was a significant correlation between pre-competition state anxiety, inter-competition HRV, and shooting performance. The negative dimension of state anxiety was positively correlated with sympathetic activity in HRV, negatively correlated with parasympathetic activity, and negatively correlated with shooting performance. The positive dimension of state anxiety was negatively correlated with sympathetic activity in HRV, positively correlated with parasympathetic activity, and significantly positively correlated with motor performance.ConclusionAdolescent shooters with higher sports levels usually have better pre-competition mental state and emotional regulation ability, and could better maintain autonomic nerve dynamic balance and focus attention resources on shooting tasks during the competition, so it was easier to achieve good shooting performance. Meanwhile, pre-competition state anxiety and HRV during competition could be used as objective indicators to monitor and evaluate the competitive state of young shooters.

The effects of two different concurrent training programs on specific performance, physiological and biochemical parameters in soccer players

The study examined the effects of two concurrent training models, one being an eight-week High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and the other, High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) both with additional strength training (S), on physiological parameters (blood lactate concentration and heart rate), athlete's performance (maximal strength, explosive power, aerobic endurance, 20 m sprint), and biochemical outputs. The study involved a total of 21 young males playing with amateur soccer licenses for at least 2 years divided into three groups. One group received S + HIIT training, second group received S + HIFT training and the control group continued their soccer-specific training. Both the experimental and the control groups underwent pre- and post-tests and while only the experimental groups underwent an eight-week training program. Pre- and post-tests of the all the participants included measurements of body composition, adaptation studies, trial measurements, biochemical blood, aerobic endurance measurements, sprint tests, and strength measurements. The Mixed Design ANOVA analysis was utilized to examine the performance, physiological, and biochemical data of the participants before and after the experiment. Concurrent training models were effective in increasing athletic performance (VO2max, CMJ, 1RM bench press and Yo-Yo test) and physiological outcomes during recovery (HR, blood lactate, Borg Scale) compared to the control group with traditional training. There was no significant difference between the biochemical changes in the S + HIIT, S + HIFT and control groups during the trial period. In summary, both concurrent training (CT) models had positive effects on sports performance and physiological outcomes, but not on biochemical outcomes.

Essential visual skills required for boxing: A review

Background: Boxing requires athletes to possess specific visual skills to effectively evaluate situations and react in a timely manner. Understanding these skills is crucial for the training and development of athletes.Aim: This review aimed to summarise and analyse the essential visual skills required for boxing, highlighting their importance beyond basic visual acuity.Method: Studies were obtained from various databases, including Science Direct, Google Scholar, CISTI Source, SPORTDiscus and PubMed. A comprehensive keyword search was conducted, searching Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) ‘visual skills’, ‘hand-eye coordination’, ‘peripheral vision’, ‘eye movements’, ‘boxing’, ‘boxing rules’, ‘reaction time’, ‘speed of recognition’, ‘accommodation facility’, ‘visual memory’, ‘combat sport’, ‘depth perception’, ‘motor learning’, and ‘cognitive function’.Results: A total of 35 full-text English-language articles were included in the review after the removal of duplicates and the full-text review process. The review found that the essential visual skills required for boxing are depth perception, accommodation facility, saccadic eye movements, hand-eye coordination, peripheral awareness, speed and span of recognition, reaction time, visual memory and anticipation.Conclusion: The findings suggest that training programmes for boxers should incorporate exercises to enhance these visual skills. Further research is needed to develop specific training protocols and evaluate their effectiveness.Contribution: This review provides a comprehensive overview of visual skills in boxing, offering insights into their role in athletic performance. The study contributes to the development of more effective training strategies and highlights the need for further research in sports vision.

A IMPORTÂNCIA DA SUPLEMENTAÇÃO NUTRICIONAL PARA A PREVENÇÃO E RECUPERAÇÃO DE LESÕES EM ATLETAS: UMA REVISÃO BIBLIOGRÁFICA

Sports nutrition is an area dedicated to the study and application of nutritional principles with the aim of improving the physical performance of athletes, in addition to helping to prevent and recover from injuries. This work investigates how sports nutrition contributes to preventing and recovering from injuries, analyzing nutrients that maintain tissue integrity, reduce risk and accelerate healing. Material and methods: A survey of studies was conducted in the Scielo, Google Scholar, Pubmed, Lilacs databases, published between the years 2015 and 2024, capturing 10 articles that met all inclusion criteria. Results: Of the 10 studies analyzed, 8 demonstrated positive results when using a protein dosage between 1.6 and 2.5 g/kg. Regarding the use of supplements, 8 studies indicated beneficial effects, while 2 presented inconclusive results. Thus, only 8 studies showed improvements in injury recovery. Conclusions: The results of this research demonstrated that sports nutrition plays a fundamental role in preventing and recovering from sports injuries, in addition to a balanced and diversified diet providing the necessary substrates for carrying out physical activities.

Assessing ambient temperature measurements in road cycling races

The impact of heat stress on sports performance is a highly relevant topic. Environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, play a significant role in determining athletic performance. Cycling computers are commonly used in road cycling to capture various data, including temperature. However, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of accurately measuring ambient temperature. This study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of the Garmin Edge 830 cycling computers in measuring ambient temperature during road cycling competitions. We analyzed temperature data collected by 12 different cycling computers. We focused on assessing these devices’ reliability and validity compared to measurements obtained from an official meteorological station. The interclass correlation coefficient between the devices was 0.468 (95% CI: 0.254 to 0.626; p &lt; 0.001). The temperature readings exhibited a significant variability across the different devices. Furthermore, when comparing the data with the readings from the meteorological station, there was no agreement, as indicated by a Lin's Concordance Coefficient (LCC) of 0.398 and a Mean Absolute Percent Error (MAPE) of 8.87%. This research raises concerns regarding the reliability and validity of cycling computer devices for measuring ambient temperature.

Evaluation of WIMU Sensor Performance in Estimating Running Stride and Vertical Stiffness in Football Training Sessions: A Comparison with Smart Insoles.

Temporal parameters are crucial for understanding running performance, especially in elite sports environments. Traditional measurement methods are often labor-intensive and not suitable for field conditions. This study seeks to provide greater clarity in parameter estimation using a single device by comparing it to the gold standard. Specifically, this study aims to investigate how the temporal parameters and vertical stiffness (Kvert) of running stride exerted by IMU sensors are related to the parameters of the smart insole for outdoor acquisition. Ten healthy male subjects performed four 60-meter high-speed runs. Data were collected using the WIMU PRO™ device and smart insoles. Contact time (CT) and flight time (FT) were identified, and Kvert was calculated using Morin's method. Statistical analyses assessed data normality, correlations, and reliability. WIMU measured longer CT, with differences ranging from 26.3% to 38.5%, and shorter FT, with differences ranging from 27.3% to 54.5%, compared to smart insoles, across different running speeds. Kvert values were lower with WIMU, with differences ranging from 23.96% to 45.01% depending on the running activity, indicating significant differences (p < 0.001). Using these results, a multiple linear regression model was developed for the correction of WIMU's Kvert values, improving the accuracy. The improved accuracy of Kvert measurements has significant implications for athletic performance. It provides sports scientists with a more reliable metric to estimate player fatigue, potentially leading to more effective training regimens and injury prevention strategies. This advancement is particularly valuable in team sports settings, where easy-to-use and accurate biomechanical assessments of multiple athletes are essential.

Construction of college student’s volleyball functional physical training system based on 5G embedded analysis from the perspective of biomechanics

In volleyball, the movement and performance of athletes are closely related to biomechanical principles. The process of getting the ball beyond the opponent’s net and landing on the court involves complex biomechanical actions such as jumping, spiking, and blocking. These actions require appropriate muscle activation, joint movement, and force generation. Through a 5G embedded physical training system, college students’ biomechanical performance in volleyball can be effectively monitored and analyzed. For example, the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) can be used to measure the forces exerted on the body during movements, such as the impact force on the fingers during spiking and blocking, and the stress on the lower back. By analyzing these biomechanical data, problems such as finger injuries and lower back pain can be better understood and addressed. Moreover, the 5G embedded system allows for a detailed analysis of the biomechanical characteristics of different teams and players, enabling coaches and athletes to optimize training strategies. The system can also provide visual feedback on biomechanical parameters, which helps students improve their overall coordination and muscle strength. By incorporating biomechanical analysis into the volleyball physical training system, students can better understand the scientific basis of their movements and improve their performance. Statistical analysis has been carried out effectively based on the study analysis with the existing open-source datasets, providing a quantitative basis for biomechanical research and training optimization.

Effect of Green Tea Extract in Conjunction with Exercise Prices of Training on Anaerobic Performances in College Students’ Outcomes

To evaluate the effects of various interventions on anaerobic power, fatigue index, and overall performance in college students. Participants were 30 college students aged 18-22 years from Sichuan Vocational College of Health. Their height, weight, and anaerobic capacity were measured using the running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST). We divided the students into three groups of 10 participants each, consisting of 3 males and 7 females, based on their RAST test scores. Group 1 received a placebo (500 mg) combined with 4 weeks of athletic training; Group 2 received a single dose of 500 mg of green tea extract with exercise; and Group 3 received 500 mg of green tea extract combined with 4 weeks of athletic training. Before-and-after-experimental data research designs were compared using a t-test analysis, while differences between groups were assessed. The results showed that statistically significant were not differences in anaerobic capacity for Group 1, while Group 2 displayed significant improvements in anaerobic capacity and mean power among female students (p&lt;.05). Group 3: students’ exercise training on anaerobic power, fatigue index, and mean power variables are differences, significant for both male and female students (p&lt;.05). Confirmation of the effect of green tea extract in conjunction with exercise prices of training on anaerobic performance in college students’ outcomes between each paired-group using one-way ANOVA, the results revealed that the four variables are differences, significant in anaerobic power, average power, and fatigue index across the groups, and Group 3 indicating the most notable improvements. Suggestions that, combining green tea extract with prolonged athletic training significantly improves anaerobic capacity, particularly in female participants. These results highlight the potential benefits of green tea extract in enhancing athletic performance, warranting further research to explore its long-term effects and optimize exercise interventions.

Reduced-Order Model of a Time-Trial Cyclist Helmet for Aerodynamic Optimization Through Mesh Morphing and Enhanced with Real-Time Interactive Visualization

Aerodynamics is a key factor in time-trial cycling. Over the years, various aspects have been investigated, including positioning, clothing, bicycle design, and helmet shape. The present study focuses on the development of a methodology for the aerodynamic optimization of a time-trial helmet through the implementation of a reduced-order model, alongside advanced simulation techniques, such as computational fluid dynamics, radial basis functions, mesh morphing, and response surface methodology. The implementation of a reduced-order model enhances the understanding of aerodynamic interactions compared to traditional optimization workflows reported in sports-related research, facilitating the identification of an optimal helmet shape during the design phase. The study offers practical insights for refining helmet design. Starting with a baseline teardrop profile, several morphing configurations are systematically tested, resulting in a 10% reduction in the drag force acting on the helmet. The reduced-order model also facilitates the analysis of turbulent flow patterns on the cyclist’s body, providing a detailed understanding of aerodynamic interactions. By leveraging reduced-order models and advanced simulation techniques, this study contributes to ongoing efforts to reduce the aerodynamic resistance of time-trial helmets, ultimately supporting the goal of improved athlete performance.

Are Mindfulness and Sleep Predictors of Cognitive Fatigue in Student Athletes?

Introduction. Cognitive fatigue is crucial for student-athletes who have the task of both fulfilling their academic tasks and ensuring their athletic performance. Therefore, it is essential to explore the predictors of cognitive fatigue in student-athletes. Objective. This study aimed to examine mindfulness and sleep behavior as predictors of cognitive fatigue in student athletes. Method. A total of 144 student-athletes (40.3% male, 59.7% female, M age = 20.7, SD = 3.13) with a mean sports experience of 9.03 years (SD = 3.75) were included in the study. The Mindfulness for Sport Inventory (MIS), the Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire (ASBQ), and the cognitive fatigue part of the Scale of Physical and Cognitive Fatigue Perceived (SPCFP) were used as data collection tools. Results. Cognitive fatigue was negatively associated with mindfulness while positively associated with poor sleep behavior. In addition, mindfulness and sleep were significant predictors of cognitive fatigue. Conclusion. Mindfulness and sleep should be taken into consideration to reduce cognitive fatigue in student-athletes.

Relative Age Effect Among World-Class Jump Athletes

The relative age effect (RAE), as a widely recognized phenomenon in the field of sports, reveals the bias in talent selection across various sporting disciplines and the neglect of certain potentially gifted athletes. The study aims to analyze RAE incidence and athletic performance among the top 100 world-ranked high jump and long jump athletes, as well as to examine the differences across the five continents. Finally, successful professional athletes are divided into two groups, namely the "All-Phase Success (AS)" and the "Senior Success (SS)" based on their success during their youth. A comparison is made between the performance and age differences of these two groups. The results indicate: 1) the RAE is present across all age groups (U18, U20, Senior) and both sexes in the high jump and long jump events (except for the senior male high jump). 2) Athletes in the AS group are consistently 2-3 years younger at each key stage of their athletic careers compared to those in the SS group. 3) Relatively younger athletes exhibit higher transition rates during their youth period compared to relatively older athletes. However, despite the larger number of relatively older athletes, AS athletes still outperform SS athletes in high jump and long jump events.

Impact of Sports on Female Growth and Pubertal Development: A Cohort Study.

Introduction The participation of women in sports is increasing, and the rising training demands may impact growth and pubertal development. High-intensity sports are often linked to delayed growth and bone maturation due to energy deficits and intense regimens. These factors may increase the risk of injury and musculoskeletal issues.Additionally, elite athletes face higher incidences of eating disorders and the female athlete triad, affecting both physical and mental health. This article aims to examine the impact of various sports on female physiological development, particularly during puberty. Methods This retrospective observational study was conducted over six months and included female athletes aged 16-30 years involved in sports. Participants provided online consent. Data were collected through a self-administered electronic questionnaire, covering sociodemographic factors, menstrual cycle characteristics, growth patterns, pubertal development, lifestyle habits, and perceived effects on athletic performance. Responses, gathered using Google Forms® (Google LLC, Mountain View, California, United States), were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20 (Released 2011; IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, United States). Results The study included 121 female athletes (mean age: 20 years), with rugby (n=35), gymnastics (n=23), and soccer (n=22) as the most common sports. Participants generally began sports around age 11, with gymnastics athletes starting earlier than those in other sports. The median weekly training duration was six hours across three sessions, with most athletes competing nationally (n=82) or internationally (n=29). The median age at menarche was 12 years, occurring later in soccer, gymnastics, and triathlon athletes. Rugby and soccer players demonstrated greater height increases post-menarche, although seven athletes, primarily rugby players, did not reach their target familial height. Achievement of target height was significantly associated with the number of weekly training hours (p=0.019). Dietary restrictions were most common among rugby (n=7), gymnastics (n=6), and soccer (n=5) athletes. Eating disorders, primarily anorexia and bulimia, were observed in 11 athletes, particularly in rugby and gymnastics, and correlated with the age of thelarche. Injuries, notably in rugby and gymnastics, were frequent, and injury incidence was associated with the onset age of eating disorders. Conclusion This study highlights how intensive training, low-energy diets, and eating disorders negatively influence growth, pubertal development, and injury rates in female athletes.Heavy training loads combined with low-energy diets or eating disorders delay puberty, impair growth, and heighten injury susceptibility due to hormonal imbalances.