Performance Of Working Memory Task Research Articles

Aging and feature binding in visual working memory.

Older adults have reduced performance in visual working memory tasks in comparison to young adults, but the precipitators of the age-related impairment are not fully understood. The most common interpretation of this difference is that older adults are incapable of maintaining the same amount of object representations as young adults over short intervals (in line with the fixed-slot model of working memory). However, it has remained largely unexplored whether the age-related decline is only due to the number of representations that older individuals can retain in visual working memory, or whether the content of the representation(s) may have an effect as well (in line with the flexible-resource model of working memory). Feature binding studies represent an interesting research line to examine the content of older adults' representations. In this mini-review, we present the main results across feature binding studies in aging, as well as highlight the importance of manipulating both the representation content and number to have a stress test of the various models of working memory and their contribution to aging. Overall, feature binding studies, together with the simultaneous manipulation of set size, will allow us to better understand the nature of the age-related decline of visual working memory.

The impact of visual cross-modal conflict with semantic and nonsemantic distractors on working memory task: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study.

Cross-modal conflicts arise when information from multisensory modalities is incongruent. Most previous studies investigating audiovisual cross-modal conflicts have focused on visual targets with auditory distractors, and only a few studies have focused on auditory targets with visual distractors. Moreover, no study has investigated the differences in the impact of visual cross-modal conflict with semantic and nonsemantic competition and its neural basis. This cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the impact of 2 types of visual cross-modal conflicts with semantic and nonsemantic distractors through a working memory task and associated brain activities. The participants were 33 healthy, right-handed, young male adults. The paced auditory serial addition test was performed under 3 conditions: no-distractor and 2 types of visual distractor conditions (nonsemantic and semantic distractor conditions). Symbols and numbers were used as nonsemantic and semantic distractors, respectively. The oxygenated hemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) concentration in the frontoparietal regions, bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and inferior parietal cortex (IPC) were measured during the task under each condition. The results showed significantly lower paced auditory serial addition test performances in both distractor conditions than in the no-distractor condition, but no significant difference between the 2 distractor conditions. For brain activity, a significantly increased Oxy-Hb concentration in the right VLPFC was only observed in the nonsemantic distractor condition (corrected P = .015; Cohen d = .46). The changes in Oxy-Hb in the bilateral IPC were positively correlated with changes in task performance for both types of visual cross-modal distractor conditions. Visual cross-modal conflict significantly impairs auditory working memory task performance, regardless of the presence of semantic or nonsemantic distractors. The right VLPFC may be a crucial region to inhibit visual nonsemantic information in cross-modal conflict situations, and bilateral IPC may be closely linked with the inhibition of visual cross-modal distractor, regardless of the presence of semantic or nonsemantic distractors.

Alpha Oscillations Track Content-Specific Working Memory Capacity.

Although the neural basis of working memory (WM) capacity is often studied by exploiting interindividual differences, capacity may also differ across memory materials within a given individual. Here, we exploit the content dependence of WM capacity as a novel approach to investigate the oscillatory correlates of WM capacity, focusing on posterior 9-12 Hz alpha activity during retention. We recorded scalp electroencephalography (EEG) while male and female human participants performed WM tasks with varying memory loads (two vs. four items) and materials (English letters vs. regular shapes vs. abstract shapes). First, behavioral data confirmed that memory capacity was fundamentally content dependent; capacity for abstract shapes plateaued at around two, whereas the participants could remember more letters and regular shapes. Critically, content-specific capacity was paralleled in the degree of attenuation of EEG-alpha activity that plateaued in a similar content-specific manner. Although we observed greater alpha attenuation for higher loads for all materials, we found larger load effects for letters and regular shapes than for abstract shapes, which is consistent with our behavioral data showing a lower capacity plateau for abstract shapes. Moreover, when only considering two-item trials, alpha attenuation was greater for abstract shapes where two items were close to the capacity plateau than for other materials. Multivariate decoding of alpha activity patterns reinforced these findings. Finally, for each material, load effects on capacity (K) and alpha attenuation were correlated across individuals. Our results demonstrate that alpha oscillations track memory capacity in a content-specific manner and track not just the number of items but also their complexity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT WM is limited in its capacity. We show that capacity is not fixed for an individual but is rather memory-content dependent. Moreover, we used this as a novel approach to investigate the neural basis of WM capacity with EEG. We found that both behavioral capacity estimates and neural oscillations in the alpha band varied with memory loads and materials. The critical finding is a capacity plateau of approximately two items only for the more complex materials, accompanied by a similar plateau in the EEG alpha attenuation. The load effects on capacity and alpha attenuation were furthermore correlated across individuals for each of the materials. Our results demonstrate that alpha oscillations track the content-specific nature of WM capacity.

Dopaminergic medication normalizes aberrant cognitive control circuit signalling in Parkinson's disease.

Dopaminergic medication is widely used to alleviate motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, but these medications also impact cognition with significant variability across patients. It is hypothesized that dopaminergic medication impacts cognition and working memory in Parkinson's disease by modulating frontoparietal-basal ganglia cognitive control circuits, but little is known about the underlying causal signalling mechanisms and their relation to individual differences in response to dopaminergic medication. Here we use a novel state-space computational model with ultra-fast (490 ms resolution) functional MRI to investigate dynamic causal signalling in frontoparietal-basal ganglia circuits associated with working memory in 44 Parkinson's disease patients ON and OFF dopaminergic medication, as well as matched 36 healthy controls. Our analysis revealed aberrant causal signalling in frontoparietal-basal ganglia circuits in Parkinson's disease patients OFF medication. Importantly, aberrant signalling was normalized by dopaminergic medication and a novel quantitative distance measure predicted individual differences in cognitive change associated with medication in Parkinson's disease patients. These findings were specific to causal signalling measures, as no such effects were detected with conventional non-causal connectivity measures. Our analysis also identified a specific frontoparietal causal signalling pathway from right middle frontal gyrus to right posterior parietal cortex that is impaired in Parkinson's disease. Unlike in healthy controls, the strength of causal interactions in this pathway did not increase with working memory load and the strength of load-dependent causal weights was not related to individual differences in working memory task performance in Parkinson's disease patients OFF medication. However, dopaminergic medication in Parkinson's disease patients reinstated the relation with working memory performance. Our findings provide new insights into aberrant causal brain circuit dynamics during working memory and identify mechanisms by which dopaminergic medication normalizes cognitive control circuits.

Pupillometry and electroencephalography in the digit span task

This dataset consists of raw 64-channel EEG, cardiovascular (electrocardiography and photoplethysmography), and pupillometry data from 86 human participants recorded during 4 minutes of eyes-closed resting and during performance of a classic working memory task – digit span task with serial recall. The participants either memorized or just listened to sequences of 5, 9, or 13 digits presented auditorily every 2 seconds. The dataset can be used for (1) developing algorithms for cognitive load discrimination and detection of cognitive overload; (2) studying neural (event-related potentials and brain oscillations) and peripheral (electrocardiography, photoplethysmography, and pupillometry) physiological signals during encoding and maintenance of each sequentially presented memory item; (3) correlating cognitive load and individual differences in working memory to neural and peripheral physiology, and studying the relationship between the physiological signals; (4) integration of the physiological findings with the vast knowledge coming from behavioral studies of verbal working memory in simple span paradigms. The data are shared in Brain Imaging Data Structure (BIDS) format and freely available on OpenNeuro (https://openneuro.org/datasets/ds003838).

Associations between polygenic risk, negative symptoms, and functional connectome topology during a working memory task in early-onset schizophrenia

Working memory (WM) deficit in schizophrenia is thought to arise from a widespread neural inefficiency. However, we do not know if this deficit results from the illness-related genetic risk and influence the symptom burden in various domains, especially in patients who have an early onset illness. We used graph theory to examine the topology of the functional connectome in 99 subjects (27 early-onset schizophrenia (EOS), 24 asymptomatic siblings, and 48 healthy subjects) during an n-back task, and calculated their polygenic risk score (PRS) for susceptibility to schizophrenia. Linear regression analysis was used to test associations of the PRS, clinical symptoms, altered connectomic properties, and WM accuracy in EOS. Indices of small-worldness and segregation were elevated in EOS during the WM task compared with the other two groups; these connectomic aberrations correlated with increased PRS and negative symptoms. In patients with higher polygenic risk, WM performance was lower only when both the connectomic aberrations and the burden of negative symptoms were higher. Negative symptoms had a stronger moderating role in this relationship. Our findings suggest that the aberrant connectomic topology is a feature of WM task performance in schizophrenia; this relates to higher polygenic risk score as well as higher burden of negative symptoms. The deleterious effects of polygenic risk on cognition are played out via its effects on the functional connectome, as well as negative symptoms.

Visuo-spatial working memory for objects and configurations in natural scenes in university students with ADHD

ABSTRACT Adults with ADHD typically show reduced performance in visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) tasks. These limitations have been observed mainly in tasks probing VSWM for low-level visual information. The current study investigated whether these limitations extended to memory for real-world objects, and memory for the spatial context in which they were presented. Sixty-four university students with and without ADHD memorised the form of real-world objects embedded in natural scenes. Following a short delay, participants were probed on a single object in the scene that could change in token or orientation, and that could appear within the original scene or in isolation. Consistent with previous studies, memory for the individual objects was impaired in the ADHD group relative to the control group, demonstrating that this deficit extends to complex real-world objects. Nevertheless, participants in the ADHD group benefited from the reinstatement of the scene during retrieval to the same extent as participants in the control group. This finding suggests that participants in the ADHD group formed and maintained a representation of the spatial context of the scene that aided memory retrieval. Overall, the results support an emerging view that VSWM operates on multiple, possibly independent, representations at different hierarchal levels.

The olfactory bulb coordinates the ventral hippocampus\u2013medial prefrontal cortex circuit during spatial working memory performance

Neural oscillations synchronize the activity of brain regions during cognitive functions, such as spatial working memory. Olfactory bulb (OB) oscillations are ubiquitous rhythms that can modulate neocortical and limbic regions. However, the functional connectivity between the OB and areas contributing to spatial working memory, such as the ventral hippocampus (vHPC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), is less understood. Hence, we investigated functional interaction between OB and the vHPC–mPFC circuit during the spatial working memory performance in rats. To this end, we analyzed the simultaneously recorded local field potentials from OB, vHPC, and mPFC when rats explored the Y-maze and compared the brain activities of correct trials vs. wrong trials. We found that coupling between the vHPC and mPFC was augmented during correct trials. The enhanced coherence of OB activity with the vHPC–mPFC circuit at delta (< 4 Hz) and gamma (50–80 Hz) ranges were observed during correct trials. The cross-frequency analysis revealed that the OB delta phase increased the mPFC gamma power within corrected trials, indicating a modulatory role of OB oscillations on mPFC activity during correct trials. Moreover, the correlation between OB oscillations and the vHPC–mPFC circuit was increased at the delta range during correct trials, exhibiting enhanced synchronized activity of these regions during the cognitive task. We demonstrated a functional engagement of OB connectivity with the vHPC–mPFC circuit during spatial working memory task performance.

Moderating Effects of Self-Efficacy and Time Pressure on the Relationship Between Employee Aging and Work Performance

PurposeThe relationships among employee aging, working memory capacity, and task performance in the context of information technology were studied, and these investigations in turn provide insight into improving employee task performance and mitigating the negative effects of employee aging.Participants and MethodsBased on the limited resource theory and the inhibitory deficit theory, a total of 296 valid questionnaires were collected and the relationships among the variables were examined using cascaded linear regression via SPSS 22.0.ResultsAging negatively affects working memory capacity and task performance. Working memory capacity partially mediates the relationship between age and task performance. Time pressure can exacerbate the negative effects of age on task performance, and self-efficacy mitigates the negative effects of age on task performance.DiscussionEmployee information system learning and training can be enhanced to ameliorate the negative impact of aging on task performance. IT-related work can be limited to a manageable level to reduce the negative effects of reduced working memory capacity. Employees’ internal motivation can be gradually cultivated, and employees can be guided toward the improvement of their IT self-efficacy.

Early Subitizing Development: The Role of Visuospatial Working Memory

The present study explored enumeration processes, serial counting and subitizing, in early childhood. Subitizing is a fast and accurate assessment of small quantities. Early quantitative processing is built off of a “parallel individuation” system, a domain-general, visuospatial system that allows infants to track small sets of objects. This system creates a precise mental model of every object in a small set, similar to subitizing. Subitizing ability helps children to acquire mature symbolic representation of numeral, and deficits in enumeration processes is associate to math disabilities. However, the role of development in enumeration processes and the role of visuospatial working memory is enumeration processes is largely unknown. Hence, in the present study, we tested visuospatial working memory’s role in subitizing development in preschoolers. We tested 3 to 5-year-old’s performance in enumeration and visuospatial working memory tasks. Performance in the subitizing range (one to four items) related to individual differences in visuospatial working memory and age, while performance for greater numericities in the serial counting range did not. Interestingly, controlling for visuospatial working memory span reduced the developmental effect of subitizing, suggesting that both visuospatial working memory and age can affect individual differences in subitizing in young children, which has implications for early childhood education.&#x0D; &#x0D;

Using a Novel Functional Brain Network Approach to Locate Important Nodes for Working Memory Tasks.

Working Memory (WM) is a short-term memory for processing and storing information. When investigating WM mechanisms using Electroencephalogram (EEG), its rhythmic synchronization properties inevitably become one of the focal features. To further leverage these features for better improve WM task performance, this paper uses a novel algorithm: Weight K-order propagation number (WKPN) to locate important brain nodes and their coupling characteristic in different frequency bands while subjects are proceeding French word retaining tasks, which is an intriguing but original experiment paradigm. Based on this approach, we investigated the node importance of PLV brain networks under different memory loads and found that the connectivity between frontal and parieto-occipital lobes in theta and beta frequency bands enhanced with increasing memory load. We used the node importance of the brain network as a feature vector of the SVM to classify different memory load states, and the highest classification accuracy of 95% is obtained in the beta band. Compared to the Weight degree centrality (WDC) and Weight Page Rank (WPR) algorithm, the SVM with the node importance of the brain network as the feature vector calculated by the WKPN algorithm has higher classification accuracy and shorter running time. It is concluded that the algorithm can effectively spot active central hubs so that researchers can later put more energy to study these areas where active hubs lie in such as placing Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS).

Spontaneous Eye Blink Rate During the Working Memory Delay Period Predicts Task Accuracy.

Spontaneous eye blink rate (sEBR) has been linked to attention and memory, specifically working memory (WM). sEBR is also related to striatal dopamine (DA) activity with schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease showing increases and decreases, respectively, in sEBR. A weakness of past studies of sEBR and WM is that correlations have been reported using blink rates taken at baseline either before or after performance of the tasks used to assess WM. The goal of the present study was to understand how fluctuations in sEBR during different phases of a visual WM task predict task accuracy. In two experiments, with recordings of sEBR collected inside and outside of a magnetic resonance imaging bore, we observed sEBR to be positively correlated with WM task accuracy during the WM delay period. We also found task-related modulation of sEBR, including higher sEBR during the delay period compared to rest, and lower sEBR during task phases (e.g., stimulus encoding) that place demands on visual attention. These results provide further evidence that sEBR could be an important predictor of WM task performance with the changes during the delay period suggesting a role in WM maintenance. The relationship of sEBR to DA activity and WM maintenance is discussed.

Effects of working memory load on frontal connectivity in children with autism spectrum disorder: a fNIRS study

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) perform poorly in working memory (WM) tasks, with some literature suggesting that their impaired performance is modulated by WM load. While some neuroimaging and neurophysiological studies have reported altered functional connectivity during WM processing in individuals with autism, it remains largely unclear whether such alterations are moderated by WM load. The present study aimed to examine the effect of WM load on functional connectivity within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in ASD using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Twenty-two children with high-functioning ASD aged 8–12 years and 24 age-, intelligent quotient (IQ)-, sex- and handedness-matched typically developing (TD) children performed a number n-back task with three WM loads (0-back, 1-back, and 2-back). Hemodynamic changes in the bilateral lateral and medial PFC during task performance were monitored using a multichannel NIRS device. Children with ASD demonstrated slower reaction times, specifically during the “low load” condition, than TD children. In addition, the ASD and TD groups exhibited differential load-dependent functional connectivity changes in the lateral and medial PFC of the right but not the left hemisphere. These findings indicate that WM impairment in high-functioning ASD is paralleled by load-dependent alterations in right, but not left, intrahemispheric connectivity during WM processing in children with ASD. A disruption of functional neural connections that support different cognitive processes may underlie poor performance in WM tasks in ASD.

Dependence of Working Memory on Coordinated Activity Across Brain Areas.

Neural signatures of working memory (WM) have been reported in numerous brain areas, suggesting a distributed neural substrate for memory maintenance. In the current manuscript we provide an updated review of the literature focusing on intracranial neurophysiological recordings during WM in primates. Such signatures of WM include changes in firing rate or local oscillatory power within an area, along with measures of coordinated activity between areas based on synchronization between oscillations. In comparing the ability of various neural signatures in any brain area to predict behavioral performance, we observe that synchrony between areas is more frequently and robustly correlated with WM performance than any of the within-area neural signatures. We further review the evidence for alteration of inter-areal synchrony in brain disorders, consistent with an important role for such synchrony during behavior. Additionally, results of causal studies indicate that manipulating synchrony across areas is especially effective at influencing WM task performance. Each of these lines of research supports the critical role of inter-areal synchrony in WM. Finally, we propose a framework for interactions between prefrontal and sensory areas during WM, incorporating a range of experimental findings and offering an explanation for the observed link between intra-areal measures and WM performance.

ABBaH teens: Activity Breaks for Brain Health in adolescents: study protocol for a randomized crossover trial

BackgroundPhysical activity breaks are widely being implemented in school settings as a solution to increase academic performance and reduce sitting time. However, the underlying physiological mechanisms suggested to improve cognitive function from physical activity and the frequency, intensity, and duration of the breaks remain unknown. This study will investigate the effects of frequent, short physical activity breaks during prolonged sitting on task-related prefrontal cerebral blood flow, cognitive performance, and psychological factors. Additionally, the moderating and mediating effects of arterial stiffness on changes in cerebral blood flow will be tested.MethodsThis is a protocol for a randomized crossover study that will recruit 16 adolescents (13–14 years old). Participants will undergo three different conditions in a randomized order, on three separate days, involving sitting 80 min with a different type of break every 17 min for 3 min. The breaks will consist of (1) seated social breaks, (2) simple resistance activities, and (3) step-up activities. Before and after the 80-min conditions, prefrontal cerebral blood flow changes will be measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (primary outcome), while performing working memory tasks (1-, 2-, and 3-back tests). Arterial stiffness (augmentation index and pulse wave velocity) and psychological factors will also be assessed pre and post the 80-min interventions.DiscussionPublication of this protocol will help to increase rigor in science. The results will inform regarding the underlying mechanisms driving the association between physical activity breaks and cognitive performance. This information can be used for designing effective and feasible interventions to be implemented in schools.Trial registrationwww.ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04552626. Retrospectively registered on September 21, 2020.

The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and children's working memory abilities: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Working memory is an essential cognitive skill for storing and processing limited amounts of information over short time periods. Researchers disagree about the extent to which socioeconomic position affects children's working memory, yet no study has systematically synthesised the literature regarding this topic. The current review therefore aimed to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic position and working memory in children, regarding both the magnitude and the variability of the association. The review protocol was registered on PROSPERO and the PRISMA checklist was followed. Embase, Psycinfo and MEDLINE were comprehensively searched via Ovid from database inception until 3rd June 2021. Studies were screened by two reviewers at all stages. Studies were eligible if they included typically developing children aged 0-18 years old, with a quantitative association reported between any indicator of socioeconomic position and children's working memory task performance. Studies were synthesised using two data-synthesis methods: random effects meta-analyses and a Harvest plot. The systematic review included 64 eligible studies with 37,737 individual children (aged 2 months to 18 years). Meta-analyses of 36 of these studies indicated that socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with significantly lower scores working memory measures; a finding that held across different working memory tasks, including those that predominantly tap into storage (d = 0.45; 95% CI 0.27 to 0.62) as well as those that require processing of information (d = 0.52; 0.31 to 0.72). A Harvest plot of 28 studies ineligible for meta-analyses further confirmed these findings. Finally, meta-regression analyses revealed that the association between socioeconomic position and working memory was not moderated by task modality, risk of bias, socioeconomic indicator, mean age in years, or the type of effect size. This is the first systematic review to investigate the association between socioeconomic position and working memory in children. Socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with lower working memory ability in children, and that this association was similar across different working memory tasks. Given the strong association between working memory, learning, and academic attainment, there is a clear need to share these findings with practitioners working with children, and investigate ways to support children with difficulties in working memory.

Trajectories of performance change indicate multiple dissociable links between working memory and fluid intelligence

Many areas of psychology assume that performance on tasks of interest is stable through time. Here, using time-sensitive modeling of working memory task performance, we show not only was this assumption incorrect, but that certain components of the performance trajectory (e.g., final task performance; rate of change) were independently predictive of fluid intelligence. This fact has clear implications for theoretical frameworks linking working memory and fluid intelligence, and beyond.

Differences in verbal and spatial working memory in patients with bipolar II and unipolar depression: an MSI study

BackgroundDepressive symptoms could be similarly expressed in bipolar and unipolar disorder. However, changes in cognition and brain networks might be quite distinct. We aimed to find out the difference in the neural mechanism of impaired working memory in patients with bipolar and unipolar disorder.MethodAccording to diagnostic criteria of bipolar II disorder of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and assessments, 13 bipolar II depression (BP II), 8 unipolar depression (UD) patients and 15 healthy controls (HC) were recruited in the study. We used 2-back tasks and magnetic source imaging (MSI) to test working memory functions and get the brain reactions of the participants.ResultsCompared with HC, only spatial working memory tasks accuracy was significantly worse in both UD and BP II (p = 0.001). Pearson correlation showed that the stronger the FCs’ strength of MFG-IPL and IPL-preSMA, the higher accuracy of SWM task within left FPN in patients with UD (r = 0.860, p = 0.006; r = 0.752, p = 0.031). However, the FC strength of IFG-IPL was negatively correlated with the accuracy of SWM task within left FPN in patients with BP II (r = − 0.591, p = 0.033).ConclusionsOur study showed that the spatial working memory of patients with whether UD or BP II was impaired. The patterns of FCs within these two groups of patients were different when performing working memory tasks.

Bilingual language experience and the neural underpinnings of working memory

A longstanding question in cognitive neuroscience and in the bilingualism literature is how early language experience influences brain development and cognitive outcomes, and whether these effects are global or specific to language-related processes. The current investigation examined the effect of the timing of language learning on the performance and neural correlates of phonological and non-verbal working memory, subcomponents of executive function. Three groups of bilinguals, who varied in terms of the timing of second language learning (i.e., simultaneous bilinguals learned their two languages from birth; early and late bilinguals who learned their second language before or after 5 years of age, respectively), performed phonological and non-verbal working memory tasks in the magnetic resonance imaging scanner. Results showed that there were no group differences in performance on either of the tasks, or in the neural correlates of performance of the non-verbal task. However, critically, we showed that despite similar behavioural performance, the groups differed in the patterns of neural recruitment during performance of the phonological working memory task. The pattern of group differences was non-linear, demonstrating similar neural recruitment for simultaneous and late bilinguals that differed from early bilinguals. Findings from the current study suggest a dynamic mapping between the brain and cognition, contributing to our current understanding of the effect of the timing of language learning on cognitive processes and demonstrating a specific effect on language-related executive function.

Reward Expectation Differentially Modulates Global and Local Spatial Working Memory Accuracy.

Although it has been suggested that reward expectation affects the performance of spatial working memory tasks, controversial results have been found in previous experiments. Hence, it is still unclear to what extent reward expectation has an effect on working memory. To clarify this question, a memory-guided saccade task was applied, in which participants were instructed to retain and reconstruct a temporospatial sequence of four locations by moving their eyes in each trial. The global- and local-level spatial working memory accuracies were calculated to determine the reward effect on the global and local level of processing in spatial working memory tasks. Although high reward expectation enhanced the encoding of spatial information, the percentage of trials in which the cued location was correctly fixated decreased with increment of reward expectation. The reconstruction of the global temporospatial sequence was enhanced by reward expectation, whereas the local reconstruction performance was not affected by reward. Furthermore, the improvements in local representations of uncued locations and local sequences were at the cost of the representation of cued locations. The results suggest that the reward effect on spatial working memory is modulated by the level of processing, which supports the flexible resource theory during maintenance.