Performance For Electrooxidation Research Articles

Additive-free Electrodeposition of SnCoNi Trimetallic Catalysts for Ethanol Electrooxidation

SnCoNi catalysts were synthesized via electrodeposition, with and without citric acid, to assess their ethanol electrooxidation performance. The additive-free catalyst exhibited superior properties, including lower charge transfer resistance and a smaller Tafel slope compared to the citric acid-modified catalyst. Chronoamperometry testing further revealed better electrochemical stability for the additive-free catalyst, with less current loss over time. Cyclic voltammetry confirmed the enhanced ethanol oxidation activity with a relatively high current density. The improved performance is attributed to better mass transport, active site exposure, and the synergistic effects of Sn, Co, and Ni in the additive-free catalyst, making it more efficient for ethanol electrooxidation. These findings suggest that the additive-free catalyst exhibits more favorable properties for ethanol electrooxidation compared to its citric acid-modified counterpart.

Graph Neural Network Model Accelerates Biomass Adsorption Energy Prediction on Iron-group Hydrotalcite Electrocatalysts.

Iron-group layered double hydroxides (LDH) have demonstrated excellent biomass electrooxidation performance. However, the development of these materials relies on extensive experiments and high computational costs. Therefore, we developed a graph neural network (GNN) (named GALE-Net 2.0) for predicting the adsorption energies in the electrocatalytic reaction of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). A data set of the adsorption energies of organic molecules on the LDH was constructed. The GNN model predicted that the 1:2 CoNi-doped LDH catalyst would demonstrate excellent HMF electrooxidation performance. The calculation time was reduced from 24 h with the density functional theory (DFT) calculations to 1 h with the GALE-Net 2.0. The mean absolute error of the GNN model was 0.17 eV, which is consistent with the accuracy of the DFT calculations. Moreover, the model showed some generality as it successfully predicted the adsorption energy of furan derivatives. Our results suggest that GALE-Net 2.0 can accelerate the design of electrocatalysts.

Improving Glycerol Electrooxidation Performance on Nanocubic PtCo Catalysts.

As glycerol (GLY) has emerged as a highly functional and cheap platform molecule and as an abundant biodiesel production byproduct, possible conversion methods have been investigated. One of the promising approaches is the glycerol electrooxidation (GEOR) on noble metal-based catalysts. Although noble metals, especially Pt, are generally very stable at different pH and highly selective toward three-carbon (C3) products, their electrocatalytic performance can be further improved by morphology tuning and alloying with non-noble metals like Co. In the present study, cubic PtxCo100-x (x = 100, 80, and 60) nanoparticles were investigated in an alkaline medium at 20 and 40 °C. The effect of the composition and reaction conditions on the selectivity of the GEOR toward C3 products like lactate and glycerate was studied, and the reaction mechanism was discussed. The highest mass activity was found for Pt80Co20, although when the specific activity, glycerol conversion, and GEOR selectivity were compared, Pt60Co40 was the superior catalyst overall. In general, all catalysts, even those that are Co-rich, exhibited a high C3 product selectivity up to 95% at 0.67 V vs RHE. The low applied potential of 0.67 V vs RHE at 40 °C facilitated lactate formation with selectivity up to 72%. At the same time, the glycerate formation with a selectivity of up to 40%, as well as C-C bond cleavage, was more favored at 0.87 V vs RHE.

Efficient stabilizing agent-free synthesis of gold nanoparticles via square-wave pulse deposition for enhanced catalytic performance in ethanol electrooxidation

The pressing environmental concerns and the depletion of fossil fuel reserves necessitate a transition toward sustainable energy sources. Ethanol, a renewable biomass-derived fuel, is a promising alternative due to its availability and high energy density. This study investigates the synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) via a square-wave pulse deposition technique, aiming to enhance catalytic activity for ethanol electrooxidation. By varying pulse durations, we were able to exert precise control over AuNP size and distribution without stabilizing agents. Characterization using field emission scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction techniques confirmed the formation of clustered nanoparticles of metallic gold phase. Electrochemical characteristics analyses revealed that AuNPs synthesized with a 900 ms pulse duration exhibited the lowest charge transfer resistance and the highest electrochemically active surface area. The electrocatalytic performance test of these AuNPs demonstrated an anodic current density of 2.5 mA cm-2 and a Tafel slope of 78 mV dec-1, indicating superior catalytic performance and reaction kinetics. Additionally, the AuNPs showed high resistance to poisoning, as evidenced by a low jb/jf ratio of 0.28 and stable chronoamperometric response. These findings underscore the potential of this synthesis method for producing high-performance electrocatalysts utilized in exploiting ethanol's potential as an environmentally friendly energy carrier.

Nickel-copper alloying arrays realizing efficient co-electrosynthesis of adipic acid and hydrogen

Constructing electrocatalytic overall reaction technology to couple the electrosynthesis of adipic acid with energy-saving hydrogen production is of significant for sustainable energy systems. However, the development of highly-active bifunctional electrocatalysts remains a challenge. Herein, 3D hierarchical nickel-copper alloying arrays with dendritic morphology are manufactured by a simple electrodeposition process, standing for the excellent bifunctional electrocatalyst towards the co-production of adipic acid and H2 from cyclohexanone and water. The membrane-free flow electrolyzer of Cu0.81Ni0.19/NF shows the superior electrooxidation performance of ketone-alcohol (KA) oil with high faradaic efficiencies of over 90% for adipic acid and H2, robust stability over 200 h as well as a high yield of 0.6 mmol h−1 for adipic acid at 100 mA cm−2. In-situ spectroscopy indicates the Cu0.81Ni0.19 alloy contributes to forming more active NiOOH species to involve in the conversion of cyclohexanone to adipic acid, while the proposed reaction pathway undergoes the 2-hydroxycyclohexanone and 2,7-oxepanedione intermediates. Moreover, the theoretical calculations confirm that the optimal electronic interaction, boosted reaction kinetics as well as improved adsorption free energy of reaction intermediates, synergistically endows Cu0.81Ni0.19 alloy with superior bifunctional performance.

Performance of combined organic precipitation, electrocoagulation, and electrooxidation in treating anaerobically treated palm oil mill effluents

Palm oil mill effluent (POME), wastewater generated from palm oil production, is known for its extremely high chemical oxygen demand and brownish color. Anaerobic digestion is the primary treatment method for POME in the palm oil industry; however, anaerobically treated POME has high concentrations of residual contaminants and color intensity. This study proposes an approach to treat anaerobically-treated POME in recycled water for industrial applications by integrating preliminary organic precipitation, electrocoagulation, and electrooxidation (EO). The EO process was optimized in terms of the current density, electrolysis time, electrode arrangement, and feed flow rate. At a current density of 60 mA/cm2 and an electrolysis time of 9 min, the EO process with a graphite anode and stainless-steel cathode in the monopolar electrode configuration reduced the phenolic concentration and color in the preliminary-treated POME from 8.95 mg/L and 317.19 ADMI to 0.25 mg/L and 26.10 ADMI, respectively. Additionally, the EO process exhibited a 92.26% efficiency in lowering the ammonium-nitrogen content.

One‐Pot Carbothermal Reduction Preparation of Cu‐BTC@Cu/C Heterostructure for Enhanced Nonenzymatic Electrochemical Glucose Sensing

AbstractA heterostructure based on MOFs with a small lattice mismatch is ideal for improving glucose‘s electrochemical sensing performance. Herein, a novel one‐pot carbothermal reduction technique to prepare Cu‐BTC@Cu/C heterostructure with intimate interfacial contact and high yield was developed, by in situ integrating Cu‐BTC (Cu3(BTC)2 ⋅ 3H2O) and its derived Cu/C nanocomposites. Structure characterizations demonstrated that Cu‐BTC@Cu/C heterostructure shows a synergistic effect in the combination of these two components, with more electrochemical active sites and lower resistance. Compared with each individual component, Cu‐BTC@Cu/C heterostructure exhibits better glucose electrooxidation performance. Under optimal condition, an extremely sensitive nonenzymatic glucose sensor with a low detection limit of 6.78 μM, sensitivity of 911.03 μA mM−1 cm−2, linear range of 0.001–2.0 mM, and anti‐interference performance is presented. Meanwhile, the newly constructed sensor was effectively employed for detecting glucose in honey sample with perfect recoveries, showing its great potential toward glucose monitoring in real sample. In addition, it has been demonstrated Cu(II) can be induced into Cu(I) by glucose in solution, while Cu(I) could be electrochemically converted to Cu(II), therefore achieving a Cu(I)/Cu(II) redox cycle. It offers a promising strategy for synthesis of advanced electrocatalysts with high efficiency and promising applications in this paper.

Exploring the efficiency of borohydride electro-oxidation performance for borohydride fuel cell application using carbon-supported silver-nickel (Ag-Ni/C) nanospheres: emphasizing catalyst loading (wt%) on the carbon support and sample loading on electrode surface

Exploring the efficiency of borohydride electro-oxidation performance for borohydride fuel cell application using carbon-supported silver-nickel (Ag-Ni/C) nanospheres: emphasizing catalyst loading (wt%) on the carbon support and sample loading on electrode surface

Anode-Electrolyte Interfacial Acidity Regulation Enhances Electrocatalytic Performances of Alcohol Oxidations.

The local acidity at the anode surface during electrolysis is apparently stronger than that in bulk electrolyte due to the deprotonation from the reactant, which leads to the deteriorated electrocatalytic performances and product distributions. Here, an anode-electrolyte interfacial acidity regulation strategy has been proposed to inhibit local acidification at the surface of anode and enhance the electrocatalytic activity and selectivity of anodic reactions. As a proof of the concept, CeO2-x Lewis acid component has been employed as a supporter to load Au nanoparticles to accelerate the diffusion and enrichment of OH- toward the anode surface, so as to accelerate the electrocatalytic alcohol oxidation reaction. As the result, Au/CeO2-x exhibits much enhanced lactic acid selectivity of 81 % and electrochemical activity of 693 mA⋅cm-2 current density in glycerol oxidation reaction compared to pure Au. Mechanism investigation reveals that the introduced Lewis acid promotes the mass transport and concentration of OH- on the anode surface, thus promoting the generation of lactic acid through the simultaneous enhancements of Faradaic and non-Faradaic processes. Attractively, the proposed strategy can be used for the electro-oxidation performance enhancements of a variety of alcohols, which thereby provides a new perspective for efficient alcohol electro-oxidations and the corresponding electrocatalyst design.

Layer-by-layer Fabrication of Gold Nanoparticles/Polyaniline Modified Gold Electrodes for Direct Non-enzymatic Oxidation of Glucose

Background: Non-enzymatic direct glucose biofuel cell is a promising technology to harness sustainable renewable energy. Furthermore, monitoring glucose levels is essential for human lives with age. Thus, there is an increasing need to develop highly efficient and stable modified electrodes. Methods: This study reported the manufacture of gold nanoparticles/polyaniline/modified gold electrodes (Au NPs/PANI/Au electrode) based on the electrochemical polymerization method followed by the deposition of gold nanoparticles. The shapes and chemical constitution of the electrodes were examined by using different techniques including SEM, FTIR, XRD, EDS, and Raman spectroscopy techniques. The electrocatalytic efficiency of the present electrodes toward direct glucose oxidation was evaluated by applying cyclic voltammetry, linear sweep voltammetry, and square wave voltammetry techniques. Results: The results exhibited high electrocatalytic performance for direct glucose electrooxidation in alkaline media. The modified electrodes show the ability to electrooxidation of various glucose concentrations (1 μM ̶ 100 μM) with a limit of detection and limit of quantitation of 140 nM and 424 nM, respectively. Furthermore, the Au NPs/PANI/Au electrode showed higher durability, sensitivity, and selectivity toward glucose oxidation than the Au NPs/ Au electrode, which confirmed the role of the PANI layer in enhancing the stability of the modified electrode. Conclusion: Moreover, the molar fraction of glucose to KOH has a crucial role in the output current. Hence, the modified electrodes are great candidates for direct glucose biofuel cell application.

Solvothermal synthesis of PdCu nanorings with high catalytic performance for alcohol electrooxidation

Two-dimensional (2D) Pd-based nanostructures with a high active surface area and a large number of active sites are commonly used in alcohol oxidation research, whereas the less explored ring structure made of nanosheets with large pores is of interest. In this study, we detail the fabrication of PdCu nanorings (NRs) featuring hollow interiors and low coordinated sites using a straightforward solvothermal approach. Due to increased exposure of active sites and the synergistic effects of bimetallics, the PdCu NRs exhibited superior catalytic performance in both the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) and the ethylene glycol oxidation reaction (EGOR). The mass activities of PdCu NRs for EOR and EGOR were measured at 7.05 A/mg and 8.12 A/mg, respectively, surpassing those of commercial Pd/C. Furthermore, the PdCu NRs demonstrated enhanced catalytic stability, maintaining higher mass activity levels compared to other catalysts during stability testing. This research offers valuable insights for the development of efficient catalysts for alcohol oxidation.

Methanol electrooxidation performance of nickel-modified polyaniline thin films for direct methanol fuel cells

A metal–organic composite thin film composed of polyaniline (PANI) and Ni was prepared and characterized for methanol electrooxidation reaction. First, PANI thin films were electrodeposited on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) coated glass support in an aqueous acidic solution. Subsequently, the polymer film was modified with Ni particles (FTO/PANI-Ni) by chronoamperometric (CA) technique. The composite film was characterized by structural, morphological and electrocatalytic analyses. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results confirmed the crystallization of Ni according to the cubic structure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed that the Ni nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed on the PANI surface. The electrocatalytic performance of the FTO/PANI-Ni composite electrode for the methanol electrooxidation reaction was investigated in 0.5 M KOH solution containing methanol using cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and chronoamperometry (CA) techniques. The effects of temperature and methanol concentration on the methanol electrooxidation performance were also studied. The modified composite catalyst exhibited an electrochemically active surface area of 0.5235 cm2. The presence of Ni nanoparticles on the polymer surface promoted the adsorption of methanol molecules and facilitated the oxidation process, leading to higher current densities and better overall performance. The maximum current density was 14 mA cm-2 and the electrode maintain 68 % of its initial activity even after 200 cycles, indicating that the FTO/PANI-Ni electrode exhibited good stability. The high methanol oxidation performance of the composite electrode was associated with large real surface area, a possible synergistic effect between the polymer moleucles and Ni particles as well as high intrinsic activity of Ni for this process.

A Two-Dimensional Cu-Based Nanosheet Producing Formic Acid Via Glycerol Electro-Oxidation in Alkaline Water.

The sluggishness of the complementary oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is reckoned as one of the major drawbacks in developing an energy-efficient green hydrogen-producing electrolyzer. An array of organic molecule oxidation reactions, operational at a relatively low potential, have been explored as a substitute for the OER. Glycerol oxidation reaction (GOR) has emerged as a leading alternative in this context because glycerol, a waste of biodiesel manufacturing, has become ubiquitous and accessible due to the significant growth in the biodiesel sector in recent decades. Additionally, the GOR generates several value-added organic compounds following oxidation that enhance the cost viability of the overall electrolysis reaction. In this study, a low-cost, room temperature operable, and energy-efficient synthetic methodology has been developed to generate unique two-dimensional CuO nanosheets (CuO NS). This CuO NS material was embedded on a carbon paper electrode, which showcased excellent glycerol electro-oxidation performance operational at a moderately low applied potential. Formic acid is the major product of this CuO NS-driven GOR (Faradaic efficiency ~80 %), as it is formed primarily via the glyceraldehyde oxidation pathway. This CuO NS material was also active for oxidizing other abundant alcohols like ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol, albeit at a relatively poor efficiency. Therefore, this robust CuO NS material has displayed the potential to be used in large-scale electrolyzers functioning with HER/GOR reactions.

Bridged Pt-OH-Mn Mediator in N-coordinated Mn Single Atoms and Pt Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Biomolecule Oxidation and Discrimination.

The rational design of efficient catalysts for uric acid (UA) electrooxidation, as well as the establishment of structure-activity relationships, remains a critical bottleneck in the field of electrochemical sensing. To address these challenges, herein, a hybrid catalyst that integrates carbon-supported Pt nanoparticles and nitrogen-coordinated Mn single atoms (PtNPs/MnNC) is developed. The metal-metal interaction during annealing affords the construction of metallic-bonded Pt-Mn pairs between PtNPs and Mn single atoms, facilitating the electron transfer from PtNPs to the support and thereby optimizing the electronic structure of catalysts. More importantly, experiments and theoretical calculations provide visual proof for the 'incipient hydrous oxide adatom mediator' mechanism for UA oxidation. The Pt-Mn pairs first adsorb OH* to construct the bridged Pt-OH-Mn mediators to serve as a highly active intermediate for N-H bond dissociation and proton transfer. Benefiting from the unique electronic and geometric structure of the catalytic center and reactive intermediates, PtNPs/MnNC exhibits superior electrooxidation performance. The electrochemical sensor based on PtNPs/MnNC enables sensitive detection and discrimination of UA and dopamine in serum samples. This work offers new insights into the construction of novel electrocatalysts for sensitive sensing platforms.

Bridged Pt−OH−Mn Mediator in N‐coordinated Mn Single Atoms and Pt Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Biomolecule Oxidation and Discrimination

AbstractThe rational design of efficient catalysts for uric acid (UA) electrooxidation, as well as the establishment of structure‐activity relationships, remains a critical bottleneck in the field of electrochemical sensing. To address these challenges, herein, a hybrid catalyst that integrates carbon‐supported Pt nanoparticles and nitrogen‐coordinated Mn single atoms (PtNPs/MnNC) is developed. The metal‐metal interaction during annealing affords the construction of metallic‐bonded Pt−Mn pairs between PtNPs and Mn single atoms, facilitating the electron transfer from PtNPs to the support and thereby optimizing the electronic structure of catalysts. More importantly, experiments and theoretical calculations provide visual proof for the ‘incipient hydrous oxide adatom mediator’ mechanism for UA oxidation. The Pt−Mn pairs first adsorb OH* to construct the bridged Pt−OH−Mn mediators to serve as a highly active intermediate for N−H bond dissociation and proton transfer. Benefiting from the unique electronic and geometric structure of the catalytic center and reactive intermediates, PtNPs/MnNC exhibits superior electrooxidation performance. The electrochemical sensor based on PtNPs/MnNC enables sensitive detection and discrimination of UA and dopamine in serum samples. This work offers new insights into the construction of novel electrocatalysts for sensitive sensing platforms.

Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Benzaldehyde on Gold Nanoparticles Supported on Titanium Dioxide.

The electrooxidation of organic compounds offers a promising strategy for producing value-added chemicals through environmentally sustainable processes. A key challenge in this field is the development of electrocatalysts that are both effective and durable. In this study, we grow gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) on the surface of various phases of titanium dioxide (TiO2) as highly effective electrooxidation catalysts. Subsequently, the samples are tested for the oxidation of benzaldehyde (BZH) to benzoic acid (BZA) coupled with a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). We observe the support containing a combination of rutile and anatase phases to provide the highest activity. The excellent electrooxidation performance of this Au-TiO2 sample is correlated with its mixed-phase composition, large surface area, high oxygen vacancy content, and the presence of Lewis acid active sites on its surface. This catalyst demonstrates an overpotential of 0.467 V at 10 mA cm-2 in a 1 M KOH solution containing 20 mM BZH, and 0.387 V in 100 mM BZH, well below the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) overpotential. The electrooxidation of BZH not only serves as OER alternative in applications such as electrochemical hydrogen evolution, enhancing energy efficiency, but simultaneously allows for the generation of high-value byproducts such as BZA.

Comparison of Modifications for Enhancing the Electrooxidation Performance of Porous Ni Foil Catalytic Electrodes Derived from Paper Templates: Cu-Added Alloying and In Situ Growth of Ni-S Nanosheets

Comparison of Modifications for Enhancing the Electrooxidation Performance of Porous Ni Foil Catalytic Electrodes Derived from Paper Templates: Cu-Added Alloying and In Situ Growth of Ni-S Nanosheets

Boosting 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Electrooxidation by Porous Biochar via Loading Numerous Surface-Exposed Cobalt Phosphonates.

The electrooxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) into 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) demonstrated its unique superiority, not only in reducing overpotential and improving energy conversion efficiency for green hydrogen production but also in utilizing abundant biomass resources and producing high-value-added chemicals. However, designing highly efficient electrocatalysts for HMF electrooxidation (HMF-EOR) with low cost and high performance for large-scale production remained a huge challenge. Herein, we introduced an easy one-step activation process to produce P-doped porous biochar loaded with multiple crystal surfaces exposed to CoP2O6 catalysts (CoP2O6@PC), which exhibited outstanding electrooxidation performance. To achieve a current density of 50 mA cm-2, only a low overpotential of 200 mV was needed for the electrooxidation of HMF in 1.0 M KOH + 10 mM HMF. This performance far surpassed that of other similar materials. CoP2O6@PC exhibited outstanding HMF-EOR performance with high conversion (nearly 100%), selectivity (97.1%), faradaic efficiency (95.3%), and robust stability. This work represents a promising strategy to fabricate macroscale and low-cost HMF-EOR electrocatalysts and achieve potential industrial applications of HMF-EOR.

Au-doped PtCu2 nanonetworks with interface-rich for enhancing methanol electro-oxidation performance

Regulating the near-surface structure of platinum-based alloys by inserting transition metal atoms can significantly improve the electro-oxidative performance of small organic molecules. So far, it is rarely reported that a small amount of Au element is introduced into the interior of Pt-based alloys as an active auxiliary to adjust the electrocatalytic activity and stability of Pt-based alloys with special morphologies. Herein, a stable three-dimensional (3D) Au-doped PtCu2/C (Au–PtCu2/C) catalyst with nanonetwork structure and abundant interfaces has been successfully developed, in which the oxyphilic Cu atoms and stable Au atoms are implanted into the whole and inside of the Pt-based nanonetwork, respectively. Detailed physical characterizations of the Au–PtCu2/C catalyst illustrate that the insertion of Au atoms generates core-shell-like nanonetwork, highly-open structure, strong electronic effect, and sufficient active sites. The well-designed Au–PtCu2/C catalyst exhibits superior mass activity (MA) of 2355 mA·mgPt−1 and long-term durability of 500 cycles toward methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) in an acidic medium. Notably, the MA of the Au–PtCu2/C catalyst is 7.3 folds and 1.3 folds that of the Pt/C (322 mA·mgPt−1) and PtCu2/C (1821 mA·mgPt−1) catalysts, respectively. The kinetic and thermodynamics studies indicate that the Au–PtCu2/C catalyst is superior to PtCu2/C and Pt/C catalysts in reducing the electrochemical activation energy of MOR, promoting the mass transfer of methanol molecules, and enhancing electronic conductivity. This work proposes an advanced strategy to fabricate efficient and durable electrocatalyst with excellent electrocatalytic MOR performance, thereby enabling catalysts with special morphology to have greater application potential in direct methanol fuel cell.

Interface Enables Faster Surface Reconstruction in a Heterostructured CuSey/NiSex Electrocatalyst for Realizing Urea Oxidation.

Creating affordable electrocatalysts and understanding the real-time catalytic process of the urea oxidation reaction (UOR) are crucial for advancing urea-based technologies. Herein, a Cu-Ni based selenide electrocatalyst (CuSey/NiSex/NF) was created using a hydrothermal technique and selenization treatment, featuring a heterogeneous interface rich in Cu2-xSe, Cu3Se2, Ni3Se4, and NiSe2. This catalyst demonstrated outstanding urea electrooxidation performance, achieving 10 mA cm-2 with just 1.31 V and sustaining stability for 96 h. Through in-situ Raman spectroscopy and ex-situ characterizations, it is discovered that NiOOH is formed through surface reconstruction in the UOR process, with high-valence Ni serving as the key site for effective urea oxidation. Moreover, the electrochemical analysis revealed that CuSey had dual effects. An analysis of XPS and electrochemical tests revealed that electron transfer from CuSey to NiSex within the CuSey/NiSex/NF heterostructure enhanced the UOR kinetics of the catalyst. Additionally, according to the in-situ Raman spectroscopy findings, the existence of CuSey facilitates a easier and faster surface reconstruction of NiSex, leading to the creation of additional active sites for urea oxidation. More significantly, this work provides an excellent "precatalyst" for highly efficient UOR, along with an in-depth understanding of the mechanism behind the structural changes in electrocatalysts and the discovery of their true active sites.