Use Of Performance-enhancing Drugs Research Articles

Performance and Image Enhancing Drug Use Among Australian Women: The Role of Interpersonal Relationships in Facilitating Use

Background: Women comprise a minority of performance and image-enhancing drug (PIED) consumers, with use linked to undesirable side effects. Preliminary work suggests that many women have little knowledge of what substances they are using, with males close to them involved in their use. This study aimed to explore women's motivations for PIED use; to examine the negative health experiences related to use; and to understand how interpersonal relationships facilitate their use. Method: Women who had used PIEDs were invited to participate in an online survey ( N = 28) and/or interview ( N = 10). Open-text survey and interview data were analyzed using content and thematic analyses, respectively. Results: There were three key areas (motivations, health experience, role of third parties) within which 12 theme categories were developed from the survey data. There were three overarching themes developed from interviews that expanded on these data: socializing women's use, facilitating women's use, and PIEDs exacerbating existing issues. Conclusion: The findings substantiate the nuanced gender dynamics of women's PIED use, challenging stereotypes and revealing the complexity of their motivations and experiences. While women's reasons for PIED use may share some semblance with men's, there is a less comprehensive understanding of the physical and psychosocial impacts of these drugs. To empower women and destigmatize PIED use, interventions focusing on substance literacy and stigma management are crucial. Future research should explore these interventions’ effectiveness in promoting women's well-being and autonomy.

Medical Conditions in Former Professional American-Style Football Players Are Associated With Self-Reported Clinical Features of Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome.

Consensus criteria for traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES) specify that at least one core clinical feature of cognitive impairment (CI; e.g., difficulties with memory, executive function) or neurobehavioral dysregulation (ND; e.g., explosiveness, rage, and mood lability) be present and not fully accounted for by other health disorders. Associations between self-reported symptoms that mirror the core clinical features of TES-and how they may be related to concomitant medical conditions-remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of medical conditions and football exposures with TES clinical features (CI+/-, ND+/-) in 1741 former professional American-style football (ASF) players (age, 57.7 ± 13.9 years; professional seasons, 6.6 ± 3.9 years). Demographics (age, race/ethnicity, current body mass index, age of first football exposure, use of performance-enhancing drugs, position played, and past concussion symptoms), self-reported medical conditions (anxiety, depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], sleep apnea, headache, stroke, hypertension, heart disease, high cholesterol, erectile dysfunction, and low testosterone) were collected. Of 1741 participants, 7.4% were CI+ and/or ND+ (n = 129). Participants who were CI+ or ND+ were more likely to report one or more coexisting medical conditions than participants who did not report CI or ND (odds ratio [OR] = 2.04; 95% confidence interval: 1.25-3.47; p = 0.003). Separate general linear models for each medical condition that adjusted for demographics and football-related factors identified significant associations between ADHD, diabetes, erectile dysfunction, headaches, sleep apnea, anxiety, and low testosterone and CI+ and/or ND+ (ORs = 1.8-6.0). Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) multi-variable decision tree models that incorporated medical conditions and football exposures accurately differentiated former players meeting either CI or ND clinical criteria from those meeting none (accuracy = 91.2-96.6%). CHAID identified combinations of depression, headache, sleep apnea, ADHD, and upper quartiles of concussion symptom history as most predictive of CI+ and/or ND+ status. CI+ and/or ND+ players were more likely to report medical conditions known to cause cognitive symptoms. Concussion exposure and medical conditions significantly increased the likelihood that a former ASF player would demonstrate cognitive or neurobehavioral dysfunction. Clinicians engaged with this population should consider whether treatable coexisting condition(s) could account for some portion of the clinical picture associated with TES presentation.

Reduced graphene oxide-based sensor for triamcinolone acetonide detection: Advancements in doping agent surveillance for athletes

The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sports is a major concern for athletes, coaches, and sports organizations. To address this issue, researchers have been developing advanced doping agent surveillance techniques, including the use of sensors for detecting prohibited substances in athletes' samples. The aim of this work was to create Ag nanoparticles and a reduced graphene oxide paste electrode (Ag-rGOPE) that could be used as an electrochemical sensor to measure the amounts of triamcinolone acetonide (TAA) in athlete blood serum samples for the purpose of detecting doping. The combination of Ag nanoparticles on rGO nanosheets was validated by the findings of structural investigations. The potential of Ag-rGOPE as a promising substitute for the analysis of TAA in actual samples was underlined by the electrochemical investigations. Ag-rGOPE was reported to have a sensitivity value of 0.67522 μA/μM, a linear range of 10 to 300 μM, and a limit of detection of 0.005 μM. High electrochemical reactivity, a broad linear range, and a small limit of detection were all characteristics of the Ag-rGOPE toward TAA. With considerable recovery values (above 96.00 %) and acceptable precision (RSD less than 4.37 %), the sensor showed outstanding performance for detecting TAA in serum samples. Overall, Ag-rGOPE demonstrated potential as an electrochemical sensor for measuring TAA levels in athlete serum samples that is both dependable and accurate.

Social Interest Data as a Proxy for Off-Label Performance-Enhancing Drug Use: Implications and Clinical Considerations.

Performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) can be categorized into various classes based on the physiological mechanism of the compound, with the most popular being anabolic steroids, selective androgen receptor modulators, and growth hormones. Ancillary compounds, such as selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and selective estrogen receptor degraders, are commonly utilized alongside a PEDto counterbalance any potential undesired side effects. With little clinically relevant data to support the use of these ancillary compounds, medical education and evidence-based approaches aimed at monitoring the potential adverse effects of PEDuse are sparse.This study aims to identify emerging trends in the interest of PEDs and related ancillary compounds, hypothesize the physiological effects of the continued respective behavior, and propose a proxy for use by clinicians to approximate off-label drug use and subsequently modify their practices accordingly. Several significant trends were identified for non-FDA-regulated compounds (i.e., selective androgen receptor modulators such as RAD-140) and off-label indications for FDA-regulated drugs (i.e., SERMs such as tamoxifen). A significant increase in interest regarding selective androgen receptor modulators, mirrored by anecdotal reports in clinical settings and online forums, is coupled with stagnant or decreasing interest in both post-cycle therapies and anabolic steroids. Ultimately, we propose a call to action for utilizing social data and/or prescription data as a proxy for clinicians to better understand trends in these compounds and thus refine their treatment protocols in a concordant manner.

Fitness social media is positively associated with the use of performance-enhancing drugs among young men

The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) is at alarmingly high levels. Despite the risks associated with PEDs, young men are turning to these substances in pursuit of the perfect physique. One contributing factor to this pursuit may be the rise of fitness-related social media. The current study is set to examine the relationship between consumption of fitness social media and the intent to use PEDs among men who live in the United States (US) aged 18 to 35. The study also examines whether this relationship is moderated by attitudes toward muscularity. Specifically, we tested two hypotheses: (1) fitness social media positively predicts the intent to use PEDs; and (2) this relationship is stronger for individuals who value muscularity (i.e., idealized muscle size and definition). To that end, we measured usage of fitness social media, attitudes towards muscularity, and intent to use PEDs among 149 young men from the United States. We found that young men who consume fitness social media are more likely to use PEDs, but we did not find that this relationship is moderated by attitudes towards muscularity. These findings highlight the concerning influence fitness social media has on young men’s illicit use of PEDs and can help to inform and guide the development of targeted interventions aimed at preventing the harmful usage of PEDs.

Hormonal Catalysts in the Addiction Cycle of Muscle Dysmorphia: A Neuroendocrine Perspective

Abstract Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder characterized by an obsessive belief that one’s body is insufficiently muscular. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the addiction cycle in MD, particularly in the context of anabolic steroid and performance-enhancing drug (PED) use. Utilizing a systematic search across databases such as PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science, the review draws on peer-reviewed literature published in the past two decades to uncover the roles of hormonal and neural alterations in perpetuating this cycle. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were meticulously applied to ensure a robust analysis of relevant studies. The article details the interaction between exogenous hormonal supplementation from steroids and PEDs and brain receptors, which significantly disrupt neurotransmitter systems and affect mood, cognition, and stress responses. The synthesis of data reveals that hormonal imbalances due to substance abuse lead to profound changes in brain plasticity and function, instigating psychiatric disorders and complicating withdrawal and treatment. Therapeutic strategies are critically assessed, with emphasis on the success of cognitive-behavioral therapy, the role of pharmacological management, and the promise of emerging treatments targeting neuroendocrine disruptions. The review suggests an integrated, holistic treatment model that includes hormonal therapy and neurological considerations, underscoring the importance of personalized and sustained interventions. In conclusion, the intricate cycle of addiction in MD, fueled by the hormonal effects of steroids and PEDs on the brain, calls for an integrated approach to treatment. Future research should focus on the neuroendocrine impact of these substances to refine therapeutic strategies for MD.

Anti-Doping Policy, Health, and Harm

ABSTRACT The anti-doping policies of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) aim to promote a level playing field and protect the health of the athlete. Anti-doping policy discourages research using performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) or methods and prohibits athlete support personnel, including healthcare providers, from providing advice, assistance, or aid to an athlete or others seeking to use, or using PEDs until harm has occurred. Athletes are individually responsible for the presence of a prohibited substance in their bodies and face sanction regardless of knowledge or intent. I will argue (i) that WADA policies fail to meet the epistemic and control conditions needed to adequately assign individual responsibility and (ii) that transferring responsibility for use of PEDs solely to the athlete results in harm. WADA is drifting perilously close to the morally impermissible ‘doing of harm’ to athletes by initiating or sustaining a causal sequence of events that can result in harm.

Reframing the Debate over Performance-Enhancing Drugs: The Reasonable Athlete Argument

ABSTRACT Two of the major arguments against performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), appealing to fairness and the protection of athletes’ health, have serious flaws. First, there is no relevant moral distinction between the use of PEDs and the use of other performance enhancers that introduce unfairness and that we accept nonetheless. Second, prohibiting PEDs for athletes’ own good ignores the fact that adult athletes are constantly making tradeoffs to improve performance and pursue excellence, including sacrificing their health. We should not paternalistically impose our values on them. On the other side, arguments to allow ‘safe’ PEDs provide no normative criterion to determine the acceptable level of risk, thus begging the question. The reasonable athlete argument solves both sets of problems: it justifies a ban on some performance-enhancing drugs based on health and fairness, while avoiding paternalism, and it also establishes a non-arbitrary standard to determine which drugs ought to be allowed. First, if unsafe PEDs were allowed, some athletes would refuse to take them out of concern for their health. This is a reasonable decision even though it would put them at a competitive disadvantage against athletes who choose to use unsafe PEDs. It would be unfair for clean athletes to suffer a competitive disadvantage for acting reasonably. Therefore, PEDs that pose significant health risks should be prohibited for all athletes. Second, it would be unreasonable for athletes to refuse, on principle, relatively safe and effective PEDs, so a blanket prohibition is also unjustified. Which drugs and which doses to allow should be determined not by athletes’ actual choices but by the hypothetical choices of the reasonable athlete. The resulting sport-specific drug policy would carve a justifiable middle path between complete prohibition and complete permission.

Interaction of Medical Conditions and Football Exposures Associated with Premortem Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Diagnosis in Former Professional American Football Players.

Despite being a postmortem diagnosis, former professional American-style football players report receiving chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) diagnoses from medical care providers. However, many players also report other health conditions that manifest with cognitive and psychological symptoms. The purpose of this study was to identify how medical conditions, psychological disorders, and football exposure combinations are associated with former athletes reporting a premortem CTE diagnosis. This study was a cross-sectional cohort survey from 2015 to 2019 of 4033 former professional American-style football players. Demographics (age, race, domestic status, primary care recipient), football-related factors (position, years of professional play, burden of symptoms following head impacts, performance-enhancing drug use), and comorbidities (sleep apnea, psychological disorder status [depression and anxiety; either depression or anxiety; neither depression nor anxiety], diabetes mellitus, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, hypertension, heart conditions, high cholesterol, stroke, cancer, low testosterone, chronic pain, current and maximum body mass index) were recorded. A Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) decision tree model identified interactive effects between demographics, health conditions, and football exposures on the CTE diagnosis. Depression showed the strongest univariate association with premortem CTE diagnoses (odds ratio [OR] = 9.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.0-15.3). CHAID differentiated participants with premortem CTE diagnoses with 98.2% accuracy and area under the curve = 0.81. Participants reporting both depression and anxiety were more likely to have a CTE diagnosis compared with participants who reported no psychological disorders (OR = 12.2; 95% CI 7.3-21.1) or one psychological disorder (OR = 4.5; 95% CI 1.9-13.0). Sleep apnea was also associated with a CTE diagnosis amongst those with both depression and anxiety (OR = 2.7; 95% CI 1.4-5.2). Clinical phenotypes including psychological disorders and sleep apnea were strongly associated with an increased likelihood of having received a pre-mortem CTE diagnosis in former professional football players. Depression, anxiety, and sleep apnea produce cognitive symptoms, are treatable conditions, and should be distinguished from neurodegenerative disease.

Influence of multiple human chorionic gonadotropin administrations on serum and urinary steroid Athlete Biological Passport profiles in males.

The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) is a longitudinal tool used in anti-doping to monitor biological parameters known to change with performance-enhancing drug use. The ABP consists of multiple modules, including two aimed at detecting the use of endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids: the urinary and serum steroid modules. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a protein hormone potentially abused by male athletes to increase the production of endogenous testosterone. To date, no studies have investigated the impact of extended hCG administration on the urinary and serum steroid modules of the ABP. The goal of this study was to identify the impact of multiple hCG administrations on the parameters tracked as part of the urinary and serum steroid modules of the ABP. Ten recreationally active, healthy male individuals self-administered seven 250 μg hCG injections over 3weeks. Serum and urine samples were collected before, during, and 2 weeks following the final injection. All ABP parameters were quantified in the respective matrix, and steroid profiles were created with Anti-Doping Administration and Management System adaptive model upper and lower limits for both matrices. In both serum and urine profiles, testosterone increased; however, the testosterone/epitestosterone ratio in urine and the testosterone/androstenedione ratio in serum showed minimal changes. Additionally, serum luteinizing hormone (LH) was quantified using an immunoassay, and a serum testosterone/LH ratio was generated. Serum LH values decreased during administration causing large increases in the serum T/LH ratio, indicating this ratio may be a more sensitive parameter for detecting hCG abuse than urinary testosterone/epitestosterone or serum testosterone/androstenedione.

Is the use of performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) in women an issue of concern? The findings from a stakeholder consultation

ObjectivesThere is limited research into the use of performance and image enhancing drugs among women who participate in sport, despite evidence that women do use these substances and experience related harms. The aim of this project is to capture stakeholder perspectives on the current research, policy, and practice landscape in Australia regarding women's performance and image enhancing drug use in regulated and unregulated sport settings. DesignQualitative interviews. MethodsThirty-two semi-structured interviews were conducted online with stakeholders from Australia between September and December 2021. Interviews ranged between 15 and 90 min in duration. Data were imported into the NVivo (Version 12) platform and analysed using thematic analysis. ResultsThirty-two participants (20 females and 12 males) who held a variety of roles (e.g., coach/strength coaches, gym owners, anti-doping agents, athletes) were interviewed. Fourteen participants reported performance and image enhancing drug use. There were four overarching themes generated from the data: ‘participation in untested sports’; ‘environmental factors driving use’; ‘individual rationalisation’; and, ‘the dark side of performance and image enhancing drug use’. ConclusionsPerformance and image enhancing drug use was identified as an issue of concern for women competing in non-elite strength and power-based sports. Of particular concern is the influence of unqualified advice from third parties (i.e., coaches and partners) regarding performance and image enhancing drug use. The environments in which performance and image enhancing drug use occurs can impact individual decisions of women and eventuate in significant and long-lasting physical and psychological harms.

Framing the space of performance enhancing drug use in sport: Nationalism bias in the Australian Media

ABSTRACT Sports media regularly frames the issue of performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) through the ideals of morality, nationalism and expected behaviours. This has provided an emergent focus for research studies and extensive and enlightening coverage. This study aims to identify how the Australian media frames PEDs across a diverse range of media sources through the selection of five print and online media publications. Using nationalism bias and media framing, the study researched the prevailing positions, language and framing each publication used to report on individuals associated with, linked to or found to be using, PEDs. The prevalent, ‘nationalism-based’ reporting emerged, glorifying anti-doping procedures in relation to international athletes and sporting programmes. In comparison, the guilt and severity of punishments given to Australian athletes was questioned. Thus, the reporting presents both a political and biased narrative that is explored further within this manuscript.

The ethics of pigeon racing

ABSTRACT There is a dearth of academic research on the ethics of pigeon racing. We argue that pigeon racing is associated with significant benefits and disadvantages, but that the benefits that have been associated with it can be provided by alternative practices. Disadvantages include the competitive element associated with racing, which creates a strong incentive to kill birds where this is not in their best interests, as well as the welfare issues related to transportation, the widowhood system, the races themselves, and the use of performance-enhancing drugs. Whilst some of these disadvantages can be diminished, we argue that an ethical form of pigeon racing is not possible, and that it therefore ought to be prohibited. In the final part of this article, we question whether the moral problems associated with pigeon racing include the keeping of pigeons per se. On this issue, we argue that keeping pigeons does pose moral problems, but that more research is needed to explore whether these might be relatively minor compared to the problems associated with de-domesticating pigeons. The moral implications of our research extend beyond the world of pigeon racing as similar arguments should be used to question the racing and keeping of many other animals.

Performance Enhancing Drugs and Methods of Doping: Mode of Action and Dope Testing Methodologies

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) monitors each sport worldwide to ensure freedom from drug abuse. Abuse of Drugs or procedures specifically which are banned by WADA to artificially enhance the efficiency of sports-person is called DOPING. The ban is imposed due to the side-effects of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), lack of fairness in sports, and the deterioration of sport for the public. The use of PEDs damaging the spirit of sport, and therefore banned, by WADA and the International Olympic Committee. Fair play is a prerequisite to promote clean and safe sports. Doping is the intentional use of banned PEDs by athletic competitors that may be overtly or covertly assisted by Athlete support personnel. Besides, athletes (or athletic programs) taking unambiguous actions to escape exposure make worse the fair disobedience with dishonesty and cheating. Immunoassay, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS), Gel Electrophoresis, and Bio- /Chem-iluminescence technologies have been traditionally used in dope testing. There is a strong continuous requirement for further improving the quality of dope testing setups, processes, and procedures. Adoption of emerging technologies like metabolomics and the use of other omic technologies shall play a big role in continual improvements in dope testing. The present system in Doping Control is required to function in a more globally competitive, coordinated, and proactive manner. This review will outline a brief overview of the PEDs, their health impacts, history of their use, and their pharmacological impact. It also analyses comprehensive information on the Dope Testing Technologies available and in the offing.

An Investigation Into the Attitudes of Virtual Cycling Participants Regarding Avatar Bodyweight Manipulation and Weight Doping

This study aimed to investigate the viewpoints and attitudes about virtual e-cycling apps with respect to the manipulation of an avatar’s stated body weight. An adaptation of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale delivered in the form of an online questionnaire was created to assess the act of intentional avatar weight manipulation in e-cycling apps. The level of agreement to 12 items was measured on a 5-point Likert scale, and 638 responses were received. Content analysis was performed on the responses to two open-ended questions. The respondent’s disagreed with nine of the 12 Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale statements suggesting that they saw no value to the practice of intentional avatar weight manipulation. The qualitative analysis revealed that many respondents appeared to accept that e-doping was common practice, and that prevention measures and punishment were ineffective. The results of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale questionnaire and content analysis by the majority of the respondents support that the act of avatar weight manipulation in virtual cycling esport sees similar results, feedback, and undesirability to other forms of sporting fraud such as the use of performance-enhancing drugs. It is, therefore, proposed that the act of avatar weight manipulation should be treated as an illicit, deceptive, or wholly negative practice.

Prevalence of performance-enhancing drug use among gym members in Saudi Arabia, Riyadh: A cross-sectional survey

Context: Illicit and performance-enhancing drug (PED) use is prevalent among athletes. Aims: We examine the prevalence of PED use among amateur athletes, identify the common characteristics and associated risk factors for illicit PED use and measure the perception and awareness among gym members regarding the safety and effects of illicit drug use. Settings and design: This cross-sectional study was conducted among adult male and female gym center attendees in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Methods and materials: Self-administered Arabic and English questionnaires were used for data collection. Statistical analysis used: SPSS version 26 was used to perform t- and chi-square tests. Results: This study included 379 participants, of whom 59.6% were male, 52.8% were between 26 and 35 years of age, and a majority of the participants had normal (47.5%) or overweight (40.9%) body mass index. Our study revealed a high prevalence (48.5%) of PED use among gym athletes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the true prevalence might have been higher due to the possibility of underreporting by some participants because of the sensitivity of the subject. Protein powder was the most commonly used type of PED. Of all the participants, 22.3% reported anabolic androgenic steroid use. Side effects of PEDs were observed in 19% of the study participants. Conclusion: The results of this study should encourage public health researchers and health advocates to design and implement behavioral interventions to educate the public on the benefits, risks, and contraindications of dietary supplements used by athletes to enhance their body performance. Key messages • Performance-enhancing drug (PED) use is prevalent among both professional and amateur athletes. • Gym athletes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, report increasing PED use. • Side effects and negative health impacts are associated with illicit PED use. • Misinformation on the risks and benefits of PEDs is a major public health concern. • More efforts should be implemented in public awareness about the risk of using PED targeting younger populations.

Appearance and Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Supplements, Eating Disorders Symptoms, Drive for Muscularity, and Sexual Orientation in a Sample of Young Men.

In an anonymous online study (N = 824), we investigated the frequency of use of appearance and performance-enhancing drugs and supplements (APEDS) in a sample of young men (15-30 years) in Sweden, along with their self-reported eating disorder (ED) symptoms, drive for muscularity and sexual orientation. A total of 129 participants (16.1%) reported regular use of supplements (at least once a week), including one individual using anabolic steroids (0.1%), while a lifetime use of APEDS was reported by 32.3%. The overlap between those using protein supplements and creatine was large (83.6%). Some symptoms of ED (e.g., dietary restraint, objective binge eating, self-induced vomiting, and excessive exercise) significantly predicted the use of APEDS. In addition, the use of APEDS was significantly predicted by the drive for muscularity. The prediction was stronger for the behavioral component of drive for muscularity (Exponential B = 8.50, B = 2.14, SE = 0.16, p < 0.001, Negelkerke R2 = 0.517) than for its attitudinal component (Exponential B = 1.52, B = 0.42, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001, Negelkerke R2 = 0.088). A significantly larger proportion of those identifying as heterosexual reported using APEDS (34.4%) compared to those identifying themselves as homosexual (25.0%), bisexual (19.2%) or other (23.7%). Overall, our results suggest that the use of APEDS might be more related to the drive for muscularity and sexual orientation than symptoms of ED.

Development of a scale to measure moral disengagement for occupational gains to enhance our understanding of the use of Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs (PIEDs) in the workplaceDevelopment of a scale to measure moral disengagement for occupational gains to enhance our understanding of the use of Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs (PIEDs) in the workplace

Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs (PIEDs) are a cause of concern for those seeking to reduce health harms and associated transgressive behaviour. This form of behaviour is associated with moral disengagement and is collectively used to refer to acts that can have negative interpersonal consequences (Kavussanu, 2019). Moral disengagement (Bandura 1991) refers to cognitive mechanisms that separate our moral values from our actions, resulting in behaviour that conflicts with our moral values. This model has been used to theorise the use of PIEDs for occupational performance gains - for instance, in the police or in private security- with the development of the psychometric Moral Disengagement for Occupational Gains Scale. In this investigation, 84 participants (34 PIED and 50 Non-PIED users) from 10 occupations completed an online questionnaire, shared via social media. The questionnaire was based on an 8-factor model proposed by Bandura et al. (1996), with items adapted from validated scales investigating doping in sport. Twenty items measured the following factors: Moral Justification, Euphemistic Labelling, Advantageous Comparison, Diffusion of Responsibility, Distortion of Consequences and Displacement of Responsibility. Participants completed the questionnaire using a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). The Moral Disengagement for Occupational Gains Scale (MDOGS) has demonstrated initial psychometric properties that support the use as a valid and reliable measure of moral disengagement for research into the use of PIEDs in an occupational context.

Therapeutic Use and Chronic Abuse of CNS Stimulants and Anabolic Drugs.

The available evidence suggests that affective disorders, such as depression and anxiety, increase risk for accelerated cognitive decline and late-life dementia in aging individuals. Behavioral neuropsychology studies also showed that cognitive decline is a central feature of aging impacting the quality of life. Motor deficits are common after traumatic brain injuries and stroke, affect subjective well-being, and are linked with reduced quality of life. Currently, restorative therapies that target the brain directly to restore cognitive and motor tasks in aging and disease are available. However, the very same drugs used for therapeutic purposes are employed by athletes as stimulants either to increase performance for fame and financial rewards or as recreational drugs. Unfortunately, most of these drugs have severe side effects and pose a serious threat to the health of athletes. The use of performance-enhancing drugs by children and teenagers has increased tremendously due to the decrease in the age of players in competitive sports and the availability of various stimulants in many forms and shapes. Thus, doping may cause serious health-threatening conditions including, infertility, subdural hematomas, liver and kidney dysfunction, peripheral edema, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial ischemia, thrombosis, and cardiovascular disease. In this review, we focus on the impact of doping on psychopathological disorders, cognition, and depression. Occasionally, we also refer to chronic use of therapeutic drugs to increase physical performance and highlight the underlying mechanisms. We conclude that raising awareness on the health risks of doping in sport for all shall promote an increased awareness for healthy lifestyles across all generations.

What I Think about When I Think about Teaching Ethics: A Philosophical Exploration in Pedagogy

What I Think about When I Think about Teaching Ethics: A Philosophical Exploration in Pedagogy