Use Of Performance-enhancing Drugs Research Articles

The video gamer 500: Performance-enhancing drug use and Internet Gaming Disorder among adult video gamers

BackgroundPerformance-enhancing drug (PED) use has been reported among various populations. Despite anecdotal reports of stimulant use among video gamers, only limited data is known regarding overall PED use. The objectives of this study were to determine: 1) prevalence of PED use and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) among adult gamers, and 2) if factors could place an individual at higher risk for IGD. Materials and methodsBetween May–July 2019, adult gamers were recruited from 16 Internet discussion boards or social forums and three in-person video game tournaments. The Video Gamer 500 was a 40-item Internet-based survey assessing demographics, video gaming behaviors/patterns, PED use, psychiatric diagnoses, and IGD. The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS9-SF) questionnaire screened for IGD. ResultsA total of 526 respondents completed the survey with approximately 75% from the United States. Approximately two out of five gamers (42.6%) used a PED, averaging 1.2 PEDs. The most commonly reported PEDs were caffeine drinks (33.8%) and energy drinks (19.2%). Prescription drugs were used by 6.1% of gamers to enhance performance; 4.9% used a prescription stimulant. IGD criteria were met by 2.3% of gamers and associated factors included a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (OR 3.6, 95% CI 1.0–12.5) or use of prescription PEDs (OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.3–23.1). ConclusionPEDs are commonly used by video gamers. Factors associated with IGD include an ADHD diagnosis and prescription drug PED use.

Applying insights from implementation and intervention science to improve the evidence base on image and performance-enhancing drugs (IPEDs) interventions

Recent decades have seen increased public attention devoted to the use of image and performance-enhancing drugs (IPEDs). As research into the epidemiology and aetiology of IPED use has grown substantially, so has interest amongst scholars and policy makers in developing and implementing a variety of public health interventions that target potential and current IPED users. However, the evidence base on IPED interventions remains underdeveloped and few firm conclusions can be made about their impact. In short, we know very little about whether IPED interventions are appropriate, effective, ineffective, or even harmful, or why and how this is the case. In this article, we make the case for applying recent insights from intervention and implementation science to better assess the problems that require intervention, enhance the development, implementation and evaluation of IPED interventions, and improve the quality and size of the evidence base. This is necessary if we are to develop evidence-based IPED interventions that support good health and avoid the potential to do harm. We begin by discussing the different types of IPED interventions that have been introduced and what we know about their impact from the limited evaluations that have been published to date. We then discuss how methods and frameworks from intervention and implementation science can provide important insights that will greatly enhance the development, implementation, and evaluation of these interventions. Drawing on examples of IPED interventions implemented in a variety of countries we explore how these methods can be applied by those working in this field and identify guidance and tools that support their uptake. We conclude by proposing five key priorities to support the development of a more robust evidence base of IPED interventions that will, ultimately, support an evidence-based public health response to IPED use.

Pectoralis Major Ruptures in the National Football League: Incidence, RTP, and Performance Analysis.

Background:While pectoralis major (PM) tears are rare injuries in National Football League (NFL) athletes (previous study reported only 10 PM ruptures between 2000 and 2010), the incidence of these injuries has increased over the past decade. The impact these injuries have on a player’s performance after return has not been measured.Purpose/Hypothesis:To identify player characteristics that may predispose to PM tears and to determine the impact of this injury on return to play and performance. We hypothesized that there would be no difference in performance between the year before and after their injury.Study Design:Descriptive epidemiology study.Methods:NFL players who experienced PM tears between the years 2010 and 2018 were identified using publicly available reports. Several individual player characteristics were identified and recorded, and the return-to-play rates after injury were determined for each position. The pre- and postinjury Pro Football Focus grades of players who met inclusion criteria were compared. A paired t test analysis of the change in player performance was used for analysis.Results:In this study, 63 ruptures were identified between 2010 and 2018. Linebackers had the highest incidence of PM tear compared with any other position. Of all injuries, 79.3% were sustained by defensive players. The majority of PM tears occurred during games. Only 6.9% of players who sustained the injury were suspended for performance-enhancing drug use during their professional career. A total of 85.7% of players returned to play in the NFL after injury. Among those who returned to play there were no significant changes in player performance from pre- to post-injury.Conclusion:NFL players demonstrated 85.7% return-to-play rates and no significant drop-off in performance after PM ruptures. During the time period studied, there was an increase in incidence of PM ruptures compared with the previous decade. Further investigation is needed to determine potential causes for the increased incidence of PM ruptures in NFL players.

Harm Reduction in Male Patients Actively Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) and Performance-Enhancing Drugs (PEDs): a Review.

Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) and performance-enhancing drug (PED) use is a prevalent medical issue, especially among men, with an estimated 2.9-4 million Americans using AAS in their lifetime. Prior studies of AAS use reveal an association with polycythemia, dyslipidemia, infertility, hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy, and multiple behavioral disorders. AAS withdrawal syndrome, a state of depression, anhedonia, and sexual dysfunction after discontinuing AAS use, is a common barrier to successful cessation. Clinical resources for these patients and training of physicians on management of the patient using AAS are limited. Many men are hesitant to seek traditional medical care due to fear of judgment and lack of confidence in physician knowledge base regarding AAS. While proposed approaches to weaning patients off AAS are published, guidance on harm reduction for actively using patients remains sparse. Medical education regarding the management of AAS use disorder is paramount to improving care of this currently underserved patient population. Management of these patients must be non-judgmental and focus on patient education, harm reduction, and support for cessation. The approach to harm reduction should be guided by the specific AAS/PEDs used.

ESPORTS INTEGRITY POLICIES

ESPORTS INTEGRITY POLICIES

Fighting and doping: Professional mixed martial artists experience and exposure to performance-enhancing substances and supplements

In the last few decades, mixed martial arts (MMA) has grown to become a mainstream sport, broadcasted worldwide. The increased commercialization, structure, and physical requirements of the sport arguably make the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PED) attractive to MMA fighters. In contrast, cultural aspects within MMA and diverse expressions of masculinity may temper PED use. Yet, the sport has received little empirical inquiry. This exploratory study sought to understand MMA fighters’ experience and exposure to PED and sport supplements. Specifically, how fighters learn about, use, and rationalize the use of these substances was explored, along with cultural aspects of the sport that may influence use. Furthermore, given the rapid rise of this sport, generational differences between veterans and early-career fighters were examined. Seventeen semi-structured interviews with professional MMA fighters were conducted and analyzed using a two-cycle coding method. The presentation of results was organized into four categories: learning and conversing, supplement and PED use, rationalization of use, and MMA contextual factors. Multiple misconceptions existed and the use of both supplements and performance-enhancing substances followed similar justifications linked to recovery, performance enhancement, and deficiency correction. Marijuana emerged as a debated performance-enhancing substance. Experimentation was common and knowledge acquisition strategies differed based on career stage and standing within the fighting and doping community. Fighters acknowledged the pressure to dope. However, cultural aspects of the sport and a purity perspective provide deterrents to both supplement and PED use. The implications of these findings, along with recommendations for future research are discussed.

The challenge of regulating doping and non-doping ‘performance-enhancing strategies’ in elite sports

From the use of polyurethane swimsuits to carbon fibre-plated shoes for road racing, the term ‘techno-doping’ has been commonly used in categorising the use of technology as ‘strategies’ for performance enhancement in sports. There are various types of ‘strategies’ which are regularly (and increasingly) used by athletes to enhance their performance, especially in elite sports, such as the use of actual substances, methods of administering substances, and other modes of ‘strategies’ which have the effect of enhancing the performance of the athletes. However, it is curious that at present, only few ‘Performance-Enhancing Strategies’ (‘PESs’) are regulated, such as the use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs and methods (‘PEDs’) under the World Anti-Doping Agency (‘WADA’) Code. There are other PESs which are wholly unregulated, such as the use of nutrition and haematology, environmental factors, physiology testing opportunities, and sports equipment and technology [hereinafter known as Non-Doping Performance-Enhancing Strategies (‘NDPESs’)]. This paper discusses the unequal treatment between the regulation of PEDs and NDPESs in elite sports, and will conclude that steps ought to be taken in order to harmonise the treatment and regulation of all PESs in elite sports.

Polydrug use and drug market intersections within powerlifting cultures in remote South-West England

With the rising use of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs (IPEDs), research has increasingly pointed to a need for in-depth understanding of users' consumption behaviours, in order to form effective harm reduction policy. With polydrug use prevalent in IPED-using cultures, both among ‘hardcore’ and non-competitive trainers, it is clear there is a need to understand this use, and its socio-cultural contexts, as well as how drug access and supply occurs within these cultures.This paper offers an exploration of the motivations and contexts of hardcore powerlifters' polydrug use, as well as their experiences of IPED and other illicit drug market intersections, through findings drawn from 18 qualitative interviews with participants involved in these lifting cultures and gyms in South-West England, supported by ethnographic fieldwork conducted in nine gyms in the region over a four year period, including five ‘hardcore’ powerlifting and bodybuilding gyms, as well as four commercial gym establishments.Results first demonstrate how cultural narratives around what is drug ‘use’ versus ‘abuse’ influenced powerlifters' consumption and perceptions of polydrugs, with a number of illicit drugs and other medicines used by these sportsmen, despite cultural opposition to other drug consumption considered to be harmful, and associated by powerlifters with ‘gym rats’, or YOLO type trainers. This leads into exploration of where powerlifters' polydrug consumption behaviours present the greatest risk, particularly in relation to the acceptance of benzodiazepine use as a form of ‘steroid accessory drug’ for long periods, as well as the common sharing and use of opioid painkillers to allow continued training through injury, and discussion of where harm reduction policy might therefore be most appropriately targeted for this population.Findings then turn to an exploration of how polydrug supply occurs within powerlifting culture and gyms, and the intersections between IPED markets and other illicit drug markets perceived to exist in the region. This documents the prevalence of social supply norms of polydrugs following patterns observed for IPEDs in the existing literature, before discussing the extent to which individuals with links to criminal organisations may be ‘pushing out’ culturally-embedded IPED suppliers in the region, and the impacts this is having on risk for IPED buyers. This is followed by further discussion of relevance to policy, and avenues for future research into polydrug use and supply from a harm reduction perspective, as well as the limitations of this study as specific to a remote region of the UK.

Odsustvo stida i sportske obmane

The subject of this paper is a brief review of a worldwide decreasing and loosing of moral values and moral norms in any field of human existence and in sport as well. In this regard, shame as an ethical category representing one of the supporting pillars of theological moral is almost disappearing from sports practice and sport competitions. We are witnessing common deception in sport (the use of performance-enhancing drugs, match-fixing, referee bias) which is degrading the traditional Olympic spirit and purity of sports performance and sporting events. Though there have been attempts to prevent those negative tendencies through generalisation and promotion of the fair play code of conduct (in order to level various codes of various societies and groups), its practical use is still far from what is expected. A return to already approved values of Christian morality avoiding anything that is dishonourable, shameless and impermanent is highlighted in the paper.

수행향상약물 사용 금지의 근거로서 스포츠의 고결함

수행향상약물 사용 금지의 근거로서 스포츠의 고결함

Preventing, producing, or reducing harm? Fitness doping risk and enabling environments

Policies and approaches addressing image and performance enhancing drug (IPED) use in the gym and fitness context, also known as fitness doping, vary widely by country. Fitness doping, and those who participate in it, maybe met with individual-level strategies ranging from criminal penalties to harm reduction efforts. This research compares two distinct approaches to fitness doping: Sweden’s prevention-based approach and Scotland’s harm reduction approach. Drawing on the risk environment framework, we show how national-level policies around possession, sale, and use that represent different approaches to IPEDs structure how to use is understood and experienced using two case studies: Sweden’s national PRODIS program and a steroid clinic in Glasgow, Scotland. The results highlight how individuals and communities respond to environmental constraints around IPEDs. Restrictive anti-doping environments produce a range of risks for people who use these substances and may prevent harm reduction. Less restrictive environments may allow for more harm reducing work, but the remaining prohibitions may still produce social, economic, and policy risks. We argue that formal harm reduction focused on the health and needs of those who use IPEDs offers an environment in which safer use is supported and promoted.

Sudden Cardiac Death in Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Users: A Literature Review.

Background and objectives: Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are a group of synthetic molecules derived from testosterone and its related precursors. AASs are widely used illicitly by adolescents and athletes, especially by bodybuilders, both for aesthetic uses and as performance enhancers to increase muscle growth and lean body mass. When used illicitly they can damage health and cause disorders affecting several functions. Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common medical cause of death in athletes. SCD in athletes has also been associated with the use of performance-enhancing drugs. This review aimed to focus on deaths related to AAS abuse to investigate the cardiac pathophysiological mechanism that underlies this type of death, which still needs to be fully investigated. Materials and Methods: This review was conducted using PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases, until 21 July 2020, using the following key terms: “((Sudden cardiac death) OR (Sudden death)) AND ((androgenic anabolic steroid) OR (androgenic anabolic steroids) OR (anabolic-androgenic steroids) OR (anabolic-androgenic steroid))”. Thirteen articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria, for a total of 33 reported cases. Results: Of the 33 cases, 31 (93.9%) were males while only 2 (61%) were females. Mean age was 29.79 and, among sportsmen, the most represented sports activity was bodybuilding. In all cases there was a history of AAS abuse or a physical phenotype suggesting AAS use; the total usage period was unspecified in most cases. In 24 cases the results of the toxicological analysis were reported. The most detected AASs were nandrolone, testosterone, and stanozolol. The most frequently reported macroscopic alterations were cardiomegaly and left ventricular hypertrophy, while the histological alterations were foci of fibrosis and necrosis of the myocardial tissue. Conclusions: Four principal mechanisms responsible for SCD have been proposed in AAS abusers: the atherogenic model, the thrombosis model, the model of vasospasm induced by the release of nitric oxide, and the direct myocardial injury model. Hypertrophy, fibrosis, and necrosis represent a substrate for arrhythmias, especially when combined with exercise. Indeed, AAS use has been shown to change physiological cardiac remodeling of athletes to pathophysiological cardiac hypertrophy with an increased risk of life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image and performance enhancing drug use among men who have sex with men and women who have sex with women in the UK

BackgroundThe use of image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) among men who have sex with men (MSM) and women who have sex with women (WSW) is rarely studied, with most of this research focused on anabolic androgenic steroid use among MSM. To address this gap, the extent of recent IPED use and the associated factors are explored in a community-recruited sample of MSM and WSW MethodsData from the UK LGBT Sex and Lifestyles Survey was used, which recruited through social-media advertising and community organisations (April-June 2018). Participants were asked if they had taken any IPEDs (e.g. anabolic steroids, growth hormone, hCG, Melanotan, non-prescribed diet pills) in the past 12 months. Factors associated with recent (in past 12 months) IPED use among MSM and WSW were investigated using stepwise binary logistic regression. Results1,658 MSM and 1,507 WSW were included in the analysis. Among MSM, 3.4% (n = 57) had recently taken IPEDs, 60% of those taking IPEDs had used psychoactive drugs. In the multivariable analysis, IPED use among MSM was associated with psychoactive drug use, Viagra use, higher body dissatisfaction, and lower sexual satisfaction. Among WSW, 4.1% (n = 62) had recently taken IPEDs, and 50% of those taking IPEDs had used psychoactive drugs. In the multivariable analysis, IPED use among WSW was associated with being aged 45 years and over, recent STI diagnosis, recent sexual contact without consent, and higher body dissatisfaction. ConclusionIPED use was reported by around 1-in-25 MSM and WSW, and was associated with a number of health and psychological problems. Research to better understand the drivers and impacts of IPED use among MSM and WSW, and how this compares to use among heterosexual people is needed.

Neuroenhancement as Instrumental Drug Use: Putting the Debate in a Different Frame.

The use of performance-enhancing drugs to study or work better is often called “cognitive enhancement” or “neuroenhancement” and sparked a debate between scholars from many disciplines. I argue that such behavior can better be subsumed under the more general category of “instrumental drug use”. This broader perspective allows understanding neuroenhancement better from the perspective of addiction medicine and public health and supports a more consistent drug policy. I also summarize the most important systematic reviews and individual surveys of nonmedical substance use to study or work better. Different definitions and methodologies limit the comparability of these studies. The unified approach of drug instrumentalization would partially solve such problems. Finally, prevalence studies from the 1960s to 1980s as well as anecdotal evidence since the late 19th century show that instrumental drug use is and has been for a long time a common phenomenon. It should thus also be investigated and treated accordingly.

No standarisation or harmonisation in anti-doping testing frequency

The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) has undermined the credibility of sports for many years, with cycling and athletics, especially badly hit. The World Anti-Doping Agency has been tasked with...

Performance Enhancing Drug Use Among Professional Athletes: Testing the Applicability of Key Theoretical Concepts Derived From Situational Action Theory

Doping, or performance enhancing drug use, has long been a social and health problem among athletes. Despite the issues associated with doping and the illegality of using these drugs, little criminological research has examined why athletes engage in this deviant behavior. The present study seeks to do so by applying key theoretical concepts derived from, and testing the predictive efficiency of, situational action theory on professional athletes’ past, current, and future performance enhancing drug use. We employ self-report data from a random sample of 680 professional athletes from Rasht, Iran. Ordinary least squares regression is used to analyze these data. Findings suggest that crime propensity and criminogenic exposure increase athletes’ doping behavior. In addition, we find the interaction term between crime propensity and criminogenic exposure influences performance enhancing drug use among professional athletes, while increasing the model’s predictive power. Finally, in contrast to situational action theory, we find that known correlates of deviance (education, age, and gender) still influence athletes’ doping behavior even when key theoretical variables are included in the model.

Promoting Fairness in Sport through Performance-enhancing Substances: An Argument for Why Sport Referees Ought to ‘Be on Drugs’

ABSTRACT The debate on the use of performance-enhancing substances or methods to improve refereeing is underdeveloped in the sport philosophical literature. This contrast with the attention scholars have devoted to the use of such substances and methods for athletic purposes. However, when considered from the perspective of fairness, this differential treatment is problematic. Since one of the main concerns with performance-enhancing drugs is their detrimental effect on fairness, the use of performance-enhancing drugs and methods to improve refereeing, given their positive effects on fairness, should have more relevance in the literature. If anti-doping advocates aim to protect and promote fairness in sport, they should consider the possibility of using performance-enhancing drugs or methods to improve refereeing. In this article, we make an argument for this possibility and critically discuss some possible objections. We conclude that referees, under certain conditions, ought to use doping substances or methods.

An Integrated Model of Athletes’ PED Use: A Test of Low Self-Control, Opportunity, Deviant Peer Associations, and Control Deficit

ABSTRACT The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PED) in sports is an important social issue. This is particularly true given the recent high-profile doping incidents from a multitude of professional athletic competitions around the world. Because of the numerous individual, team, and socio-political consequences that can stem from sports doping, it has become vital to explore the etiology of PED use among athletes. As such, Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime is one theory that may help explain this deviant behavior. Using an integrated theoretical model, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of low self-control, opportunity, deviant peers, and control deficit on professional athletes’ use of PEDs. Survey data from 709 professional athletes in Iran was collected and analyzed. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that all of the theoretical variables had direct and significant effects on PED use. Specific findings, policy implications, and study limitations are discussed.

Impacts of Performance-Enhancing Drug Suspensions on the Demand for Major League Baseball

In 2005, Major League Baseball (MLB) introduced a new policy regarding the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) wherein the league would not only suspend but also publicly name any player who tested positive for banned PEDs. Using the estimated television audience size of MLB games from 2006 to 2012, these PED suspension announcements provide a unique natural experiment to test how consumers react to news of PED use. This study finds that PED announcements have two major impacts on the demand for baseball. First, there is on average an immediate 9.3% reduction in the television audience of the PED player’s team. Second, the magnitude of the effect gradually decreases over time yet remains negative and significant for a period of 37 days or approximately 33 game-broadcasts. This is the first study to link PED use to an adverse reaction by consumers in a systematic way using television audience while controlling for the change in team quality caused by removing the suspended player from the team.

Performance-Enhancing Drug Use Among Professional Athletes: A Longitudinal Test of Social Learning Theory

This article tests Akers’s social learning theory with self-reported panel data on performance-enhancing drug (PED) use among a sample of professional athletes ( n = 510). Using latent growth curve modeling we find that intraindividual differences exist in the developmental growth trajectories of PED use and the social learning process. Specifically, both PED use and the social learning process increase over time, while those who begin with high and low levels of PED consumption and social learning replicate these patterns throughout the sports life cycle. In addition, using structural equation modeling, we find modest to moderate contemporaneous and lagged, direct, indirect, and reciprocal effects between the social learning process and PED use in a manner consistent with the theory.