Percentage Of EPA Research Articles

Modulation of Plasma Levels and Percentages of Incorporation of ω-3 PUFAs in Egg Yolk under the Influence of Supplementation Sources Rich in Omega 3 to Diet of Laying Hens

o Abstract: Hundred forty-four Shaver White laying hens were used over a 4 week experimental period to investigate the effect of 3% of soybean oil, corn oil (MIL), canola oil, flaxseed oil (LIN), salmon oil (SAL) or tuna and sardine oil (SR/AT) added to the diets, upon the fatty acid egg yolk composition, blood plasma levels and incorporation time of each fatty acid into the egg yolk. Hens were allocated into 72 cages and the experimental design was a 6 x 6 randomized factorial model. Hens fed 3% of different oils, responded with increased polyunsaturated fatty acids omega 3 (ω-3 PUFAs), except for corn oil. The addition of flaxseed, soybean or corn oil into the diet increased the PUFAs levels into the egg yolk and in the blood plasma. Adding tuna and sardine oil into the diet increased the concentration of yolk saturated fatty acids. The levels of ω-3 PUFAs were increased in the tuna and sardine oil treatment, while the flaxseed oil increased the plasma fatty acids. The deposition of 349.28 mg/yolk of α-linolenic fatty acids (ALA) was higher in the group fed LIN, while the higher equal to 157.13 mg DHA/yolk was observed in group SR/AT. In the plasma, deposition increased from 0.33% (MIL) for 6.29% ALA (LIN), while that of DHA increase of 0.47% (MIL) for 4.24% (SAL) and 4.48% (SR/AT) and of 0.98% (MIL) for 6.14% (SR/AT) and 8.44% (LIN) of ω-3 PUFAs. The percentage of EPA into the yolk and plasma was higher for the hens fed 3% tuna and sardine oil diet, as well as the levels of yolk DHA. The concentration of DHA into the plasma was higher for the salmon and tuna/sardine oil treatments. The PUFAs yolk decreased during the first eight days of experiment, while the ω-3 PUFAs increased during the same period. The concentration of ALA increased until ten days of experiment, while the percentage of EPA and DHA increased up to the eighth experimental day.

Supplementation with a Fish Oil-Enriched, High-Protein Medical Food Leads to Rapid Incorporation of EPA into White Blood Cells and Modulates Immune Responses within One Week in Healthy Men and Women1,2

Immune modulatory effects of EPA and DHA are well described. However, these fatty acids must be effectively incorporated into cell membrane phospholipids to modify cell function. To address the absence of human data regarding short-term incorporation, the present study investigated the incorporation of EPA and DHA into white blood cells (WBC) at different time points during 1 wk of supplementation with a medical food, which is high in protein and leucine and enriched with fish oil and specific oligosaccharides. Additionally, the effects on ex vivo immune function were determined. In a single-arm, open label study, 12 healthy men and women consumed 2 × 200 mL of medical food providing 2.4 g EPA, 1.2 g DHA, 39.7 g protein (including 4.4 g L-leucine), and 5.6 g oligosaccharides daily. Blood samples were taken at d 0 (baseline), 1, 2, 4, and 7. Within 1 d of nutritional intervention, the percentage of EPA in phospholipids of WBC increased from 0.5% at baseline to 1.3% (P < 0.001). After 1 wk, the percentage of EPA rose to 2.8% (P < 0.001). Additionally, the production of proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated whole blood cultures was significantly increased within 1 wk. Nutritional supplementation with a fish oil-enriched medical food significantly increased the percentage of EPA in phospholipids of WBC within 1 wk. Simultaneously, ex vivo immune responsiveness to LPS increased significantly. These results hold promise for novel applications such as fast-acting nutritional interventions in cancer patients, which should be investigated in future studies.

Seasonal and growth stage changes in lipid and fatty acid composition in the multigeneration copepodDrepanopus pectinatusfrom Iles Kerguelen

AbstractChanges in adult weight, lipid and fatty acid composition per lipid class were studied over a complete seasonal cycle inDrepanopus pectinatusBrady. This copepod displayed a strong seasonality in adult individual weight and total lipid content. Stages C3 to adult from a summer cohort were compared in terms of lipid and fatty acid structure. Changes in lipid content were related to wax esters and polar lipids (PL) while triacylglycerols (TAG) and cholesterol remained minor constituents except at the end of winter. Changes in fatty acid composition of different lipid classes showed that food limitation in winter was high enough to affect 22:6n-3 (DHA) content in PL, and provoke accumulation of maximal percentages of bacterial marker as branched acids. Composition of TAG followed closely the changes in trophic interactions as diatom and flagellate markers dominated in spring and summer while bacterial and detritus particle markers dominated in late winter. The composition of wax esters followed the same seasonal succession but with a lower level of turn over time and shifted characteristics (bacterial markers) from winter to spring individuals when compared to TAG. Ontogenetic changes showed high triacylglycerols content in younger C3 stages and increasing wax esters with increasing developmental stages. Fatty acid composition of PL showed low percentages of EPA and DHA in stage C3, and recovery of high levels of DHA for stage C4 or 20:5n-3 (EPA) at stage C5. The same trend was observed for 18:4n-3. The reverse pattern was noted for the n-6 polyunsaturated acids (PUFA) suggesting a greater requirement in younger stages. Fatty acid partitioning between neutral and PL suggested essential fatty acids selective incorporation from neutral classes into membrane lipids.

Correlations between fatty acid composition of seston and zooplankton and effects of environmental parameters in a eutrophic Siberian reservoir

During two sampling seasons we analyzed on weekly basis fatty acid (FA) composition of seston fraction <130 μm and zooplankton fraction >130 μm, and compared them using a multivariate canonical correlation analysis (CCA). Besides, we evaluated a possible impact of water temperature and inorganic nutrients on FA composition of the seston and the zooplankton. In spite of significant differences in percentages of several individual FAs, we found very strong canonical correlation (cross-correlation, 1-week lag) between FA composition of the seston and the zooplankton. The most important factor, providing the overall canonical cross-correlation between FA profiles of the seston and the zooplankton fractions was eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5ω3, EPA). FA composition of the zooplankton fraction had comparatively poor correlations with taxonomic composition of the zooplankton. Thus, seasonal variations of FA composition of the zooplankton were determined primarily by seasonal changes in FA composition of the seston, rather than by taxonomic differences of FA profiles between rotifers, cyclopoids and cladocerans. FA composition of the seston was strongly affected by its taxonomic composition, namely by that of phytoplankton. According to CCA, the highest factor loadings pertained to diatoms interacting with their marker acids, including EPA, and cyanobacteria and greens, interacting with their marker acids. Ciliates and small rotifers composed considerable and sometimes major part of the seston biomass, but according to CCA their contributions to seasonal variations of the total FA profile of the seston were insignificant. This finding indirectly support the conclusion of the other authors, that the main source of FAs presented in ciliates and rotifers must be sought in algae and that they do not modify FA composition of food consumed, apart from repackaging it. Water temperature was the principal environmental parameter which drove the overall variations of FA composition. Factor loadings for the inorganic nutrients were comparatively negligible. The main contribution in the seasonal variation of FA composition of the seston was given by negative interaction between water temperature and percentage of EPA in the seston.

Cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment

The incidence of fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular disease (sudden cardiac death (SCD), myocardial infarction, others) varies, depending on conventional risk factors. However, in Western countries, like the US or Germany, incidences of fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular disease are far higher than in countries like Japan. In the present article, these differences are discussed and related to eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5omega-3 or C20:5n-3; EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6omega-3; DHA). Dietary intake of EPA and DHA and a number of other factors determine levels of EPA and DHA in an individual—best assessed as the omega-3 index, defined as the percentage of EPA and DHA in red cells, and analyzed in a standardized fashion. A review of the literature, expanded by measurements of the omega-3 index, indicates that the risk of sudden cardiac death correlates inversely with the omega-3 index. For persons with an omega-3 index <4%, risk is tenfold, as compared to persons with an omega-3 index >8%. A similar, less-pronounced, correlation exists for non-fatal cardiovascular disease. EPA and DHA have anti-arrhythmic and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms of action. In large-scale intervention studies, intake of EPA and DHA has been demonstrated to reduce SCD and non-fatal cardiovascular events. Assessing or recommending dietary intake of EPA and DHA does not predict the resulting omega-3 index. Taken together, the omega-3 index is a biomarker to assess a person's content of omega-3 fatty acids, and thus the risk for sudden cardiac death, as well as non-fatal cardiovascular events. EPA and DHA prevent fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular disease and complications of congestive heart failure.

Fatty acid composition of larvae of the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus (Echinodermata) might reflect FA composition of the diets

Fatty acid (FA) requirements of echinoderm larvae were examined by a study of the FA composition, growth, and development of Dendraster excentricus larvae fed a microencapsulated diet, and two algal diets. Larvae were assigned to three treatments with three replicates per treatment, a microencapsulated diet, a single algal diet of Dunaliella tertiolecta and a mixed algal diet of Isochrysis galbana and Dunaliella tertiolecta. The percentage of saturated fatty acids (SAFA), short and long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) differed significantly among the algal diets and the microencapsulated diet. Differences in dietary FA composition influenced larval tissue FA composition. Eight day-old sand dollar larvae fed the single and mixed algal diets had a significantly higher percentage of the SAFA myristic acid (14:0), while eight day-old larvae fed the microencapsulated diet had a significantly higher percentage of the SAFA palmitic acid (16:0). Sixteen day-old competent larvae fed all three diets did not differ significantly in the percentage of myristic or palmitic acid. The algal diets had a higher percentage of the short chain PUFAs linolenic (LNA, 18:3n-3) and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) while the microencapsulated diet had the highest percentage of the long chain PUFAs eicosapentanoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) docosahexanoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6). The percentage of short chain PUFAs, though high in the algal diets, was low in the larval tissues, while the percentage of long chain PUFAs, though low in the algal diets, was high in the larval tissues. Competent larvae fed the two algal diets had up to ten times the percentage of EPA and AA than those fed the microencapsulated diet. Unexpectedly, despite a high percentage of DHA and EPA in the microencapsulated diet, the percentage of these long chain PUFAs in the tissues of larvae fed this diet was extremely low. Eight day-old larvae fed the three diets did not differ significantly in total larval length. Competent larvae fed algal diets had significantly longer larval arms, bigger stomachs and larger rudiments than those fed the microencapsulated diet. This study indicates that early larval growth and development of Dendraster excentricus were not discernibly affected by differences in dietary FA composition of microencapsulated and algal diets but the competent larval stages were. Similar growth and development of competent echinoderm larvae fed microencapsulated or algal diets might be obtained by enriching the microencapsulated diets with the short chain PUFAs LNA and SDA, and the long chain PUFAs EPA and AA. This is an important research tool as microencapsulated feeds can be used to establish nutritional requirements of fatty acids for echinoderm larval development.

Regiospecificity profiles of storage and membrane lipids from the gill and muscle tissue of atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) grown at elevated temperature

Regiospecific and traditional analysis, of both storage and membrane lipids, was performed on gill, white muscle, and red muscle samples taken from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to gauge the effect of elevated water temperature. The fish, fed a commercial diet, were held at an elevated water temperature of 19 degrees C. Total n-3 PUFA, total PUFA, and n-3/n-6 and unsaturated/saturated fatty acid (UFA/SFA) ratios in the FA profile of the total lipid extract in the white muscle were fairly low compared with fish grown at 15 degrees C. Adaptation of structural and storage lipids at elevated temperatures was shown by a significant (P < 0.01) reduction in PUFA especially in the percentage of EPA (6-8%). Further adaptation was indicated by the percentages of SFA, which were significantly (P< 0.05) higher in gill (56%) and white muscle (58%) polar lipid fractions and coincided with lower percentages of n-3, n-6, and total PUFA. The regiospecific profiles indicated a high affinity of DHA to the sn-2 position in both the TAG (61-68%) and polar lipid (35-60%) fractions. The combination of detailed regiospecific and lipid analyses demonstrated adaptation of cell membrane structure in Atlantic salmon grown at an elevated water temperature.

Qualitative methods to evaluate Mediterranean diet in adults

To fulfil a comprehensive approach to consumption, which is necessary to characterise food habits and their relationship to diseases, using a diet quality index (DQI) developed for a Mediterranean region (Med-DQI). A cross-sectional nutritional survey provided the data for the construction of the DQI. A representative sample made up of 964 subjects from a French Mediterranean area, Hérault département. Foods such as olive oil, fish and cereals were used instead of nutrients to build up scores which constructed the Med-DQI. Biochemical analysis identified biomarkers used to validate the Med-DQI. Correspondence factorial analysis illustrated the characteristics of subjects with different scores given by the Med-DQI. The subjects could be satisfactorily classified by the Med-DQI. The oldest age, less educated, overweight, manual workers, living in a rural area and male classes showed a better Med-DQI. For women, they were also from the oldest age class, but some of them were from the upper social class, with an ideal BMI and lived by the Mediterranean shore. A composite biomarker index, based on plasma carotene and vitamin E levels and the percentage of EPA and DHA in erythrocytes membranes, can identify subjects with good and poor Med-DQI. Med-DQI G is a good instrument to identify groups at risk with regard to nutritional quality. SUBJECTS with alpha + beta-carotene levels >1 mg/l, vitamin E > 30 mg/l, EPA > 0.65% and DHA > 4% of fatty acids in erythrocytes are likely to have a good diet.

Tu-P10:481 Relationship of dietary intake of fatty acids to plasma C-reactive protein in Japanese

Fatty acid (FA) requirements of echinoderm larvae were examined by a study of the FA composition, growth, and development of Dendraster excentricus larvae fed a microencapsulated diet, and two algal diets. Larvae were assigned to three treatments with three replicates per treatment, a microencapsulated diet, a single algal diet of Dunaliella tertiolecta and a mixed algal diet of Isochrysis galbana and Dunaliella tertiolecta. The percentage of saturated fatty acids (SAFA), short and long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) differed significantly among the algal diets and the microencapsulated diet. Differences in dietary FA composition influenced larval tissue FA composition. Eight day-old sand dollar larvae fed the single and mixed algal diets had a significantly higher percentage of the SAFA myristic acid (14:0), while eight day-old larvae fed the microencapsulated diet had a significantly higher percentage of the SAFA palmitic acid (16:0). Sixteen day-old competent larvae fed all three diets did not differ significantly in the percentage of myristic or palmitic acid. The algal diets had a higher percentage of the short chain PUFAs linolenic (LNA, 18:3n-3) and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) while the microencapsulated diet had the highest percentage of the long chain PUFAs eicosapentanoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) docosahexanoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6). The percentage of short chain PUFAs, though high in the algal diets, was low in the larval tissues, while the percentage of long chain PUFAs, though low in the algal diets, was high in the larval tissues. Competent larvae fed the two algal diets had up to ten times the percentage of EPA and AA than those fed the microencapsulated diet. Unexpectedly, despite a high percentage of DHA and EPA in the microencapsulated diet, the percentage of these long chain PUFAs in the tissues of larvae fed this diet was extremely low. Eight day-old larvae fed the three diets did not differ significantly in total larval length. Competent larvae fed algal diets had significantly longer larval arms, bigger stomachs and larger rudiments than those fed the microencapsulated diet. This study indicates that early larval growth and development of Dendraster excentricus were not discernibly affected by differences in dietary FA composition of microencapsulated and algal diets but the competent larval stages were. Similar growth and development of competent echinoderm larvae fed microencapsulated or algal diets might be obtained by enriching the microencapsulated diets with the short chain PUFAs LNA and SDA, and the long chain PUFAs EPA and AA. This is an important research tool as microencapsulated feeds can be used to establish nutritional requirements of fatty acids for echinoderm larval development.

Dietary phospholipids are more efficient than neutral lipids for long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supply in European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax larval development

We evaluated the effects of dietary lipid class (phospholipid vs. neutral lipid) and level of n-3 long-chain PUFA (LC-PUFA) on the growth, digestive enzymatic activity, and histological organization of the intestine and liver in European sea bass larvae. Fish were fed from the onset of exogenous feeding at 7 to 37 d post-hatch with five isoproteic and isolipidic compound diets with different levels of EPA and DHA. Diet names indicated the percentage of EPA and DHA contained in the phospholipids (PL) and neutral lipids (NL), as follows: PL5, PL3, PL1, NL1, and NL3. Histological observations showed different patterns of lipid absorption and accumulation in the intestinal mucosa depending on the level and nature of the dietary lipid fraction. Fish fed high levels of neutral lipids (11%, NL3 diet: 2.6% of EPA + DHA in the NL fraction) showed large intracellular and intercellular lipid deposits in the anterior intestine, but no such lipid accumulation was detected when larvae were fed with low and moderate levels of EPA and DHA in the phospholipid and neutral lipid fractions of the diet (PL and NL1 diets). PL were preferentially absorbed in the postvalvular intestine, and the accumulation of marine PL was inversely correlated to their dietary level. The postvalvular intestinal mucosa and liver showed signs of steatosis; large lipid vacuoles were observed in this region of the intestine and in the liver and were inversely correlated with the level of dietary neutral lipids. The best results in terms of growth, survival, and development (maturation of the digestive system and histological organization of the liver and intestinal mucosa) were obtained in the group fed with 2.3% of EPA and DHA in the PL fraction of the diet (PL3 diet), revealing that European sea bass larvae use the LC-PUFA contained in the PL fraction more efficiently than those from the NL fraction of the diet.

The impact of age, body mass index, and fish intake on the EPA and DHA content of human erythrocytes

n-3 FA are beneficial for cardiovascular health, reducing platelet aggregation, TG levels, and the risk of sudden death from myocardial infarction. The percentage of EPA + DHA in red blood cells (RBC), also known as the Omega-3 Index, has recently been proposed as a risk marker for death from coronary heart disease (CHD). The purpose of this study was to begin to explore the factors that can influence RBC EPA + DHA. We collected information on the number of servings of tuna or nonfried fish consumed per month, as well as on age, gender, ethnicity, smoking status, the presence of diabetes, and body mass index (BMI) in 163 adults in Kansas City who were not taking fish oil supplements. The average RBC EPA + DHA in this population was 4.9 +/- 2.1%. On a multivariate analysis, four factors significantly and independently influenced the Omega-3 Index: fish servings, age, BMI, and diabetes. The Index increased by 0.24 units with each additional monthly serving of tuna or nonfried fish (P < 0.0001), and by 0.5 units for each additional decade in age (P < 0.0001). The Index was 1.13% units lower in subjects with diabetes (P = 0.015) and decreased by 0.3% units with each 3-unit increase in BMI (P = 0.001). Gender or smoking status had no effect, and the univariate relationship with ethnicity vanished after controlling for fish intake. Given the importance of n-3 FA in influencing risk for death from CHD, further studies are warranted to delineate the nondietary factors that influence RBC EPA + DHA content.

기능성 지질 추출 소재로서 Fish Frames의 지질성분 특성

수산가공 부산물인 fish frame을 기능성 지질 추출소재로서의 이용 가능성을 검토하기 위하여 6종의 fish frame(붉은 메기, 연어, 삼치, 고등어, 붕장어, 가다랑어 등)에 대한 지질 성분 특성에 대하여 살펴보았다. Fish frame에 대한 어류 뼈의 수율은 가다랑어가 64.2%로 가장 높았고, 다음으로 연어(57.9%), 붕장어(54.6%), 붉은 메기(42.0%), 삼치(41.7%)등의 순이었으며, 고등어가 32.6%로 가장 낮았다. 어류 뼈 유래 총지질 중 중성지질의 함량은 삼치가 23.3 g/100 g으로 가장 많았고, 다음으로 붕장어(21.5 g/100 g), 연어(16.0 g/100 g), 고등어(15.5 g/100 g)의 순이었으며, 가다랑어와 붉은 메기의 경우 다른 4종의 어류에 비하여 확연히 낮았다. 붉은 메기를 제외한 5종 어류의 중성지질 모두가 근육 및 뼈 지방에 관계없이 TG가 주성분(근육지방, 71.9~83.2%; 뼈지방, 74.2~86.9%)이었고, 다음으로 근육지방의 경우, FFA(8.1~19.2%), 뼈지방의 경우 FS(5.5~15.5%)이었다. 붉은 메기의 경우, 중성지질의 주성분인 TG의 조성비(근육지방, 48.6%; 뼈지방, 45.3%)가 다른 어류에 비하여 확연히 낮았고, FFA의 조성비 또한 근육지방(41.6%) 및 뼈지방 (43.4%)에 관계없이 모두 5종의 어류에 비하여 확연히 높았다. 어류 뼈의 중성지질의 EPA＋DHA 조성은 연어가 29.3%로 가장 높았고, 다음으로 가다랑어(27.1%), 붉은 메기(27.0%), 고등어(25.7%), 삼치(21.6%)의 순이었고, 붕장어의 경우 14.9%에 불과하였다. 이상의 수율, 중성지질 함량, 유리지방산 조성 및 EPA＋DHA 조성 비율의 결과로 미루어 보아 기능성 지질 추출원으로는 연어가 가장 우수하였고, 다음으로 삼치, 붕장어, 고등어, 가다랑어 등의 순이었으며, 붉은 메기의 경우 부적절하다고 판단되었다.

Seasonal variations in proximate and fatty acid compositions of female common sole ( Solea solea)

The effects of seasonal variation on the proximate and fatty acid compositions of wild female common sole ( Solea solea) were determined. The levels of lipid displayed pronounced seasonal fluctuations with the highest values in February and August (0.45–0.83% fresh weight) and the lowest values in April and November (0.20–0.13% fresh weight). Although protein levels were similar, dry matter fluctuations were observed for all seasons. In the present study, the percentages of EPA and DHA were between 3.36–4.26% of total lipid and 18.75–20.23% of total lipid, respectively, according to the seasons. The composition of fatty acids in August showed that saturated fatty acids were highest followed by n−3 and mono unsaturated fatty acids. The maximum level of n−6 was found in February. The results indicated that the n−3/ n−6 ratios were 3.84, 3.41, 1.89, 1.45 in August, April, November and February, respectively. It was concluded that common sole is a healthy item in the human diet during the fishing period in the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey when balanced n−3/ n−6 ratios and EPA and DHA levels are considered.

A highly CO2-tolerant diatom, Thalassiosira weissflogii H1, enriched from coastal sea, and its fatty acid composition

SUMMARY: A marine plankton-net sample containing 18 genera with 26 species of diatoms and one genus with two species of dinoflagellate collected from the surface water of Seto Inland Sea was used for an enrichment culture under bubbling 10% CO2 in air, and a 10% CO2-tolerant microalga was isolated and identified as Thalassiosira weissflogii H1. There was no significant difference between the growth rates and maximum growth yields of this diatom under bubbling air, 5% CO2 and 10% CO2, but the growth rate and maximum growth yield under 20% CO2 markedly decreased. The percentages of EPA and DHA for the total fatty acids in cells under 5–20% CO2 were lower than those under air. However, the ratios of EPA to algal cells – dry weight under 5% CO2, 10% CO2 and 20% CO2 were 0.76, 0.36 and 0.37 (% of dry weight), respectively, as compared with 0.18 under air. There was no significant difference in DHA contents (0.05 under air, 0.13 under 5% CO2, 0.05 under 10% CO2 and 0.09 under 20% CO2), with or without bubbling CO2. The polysaccharide content in the cells under 10% CO2 was higher than that in the cells under air. This study is the first report on a highly CO2-tolerant diatom.

Fatty acid compositions in local sea cucumber,

Fatty acid profile from crude extracts of local sea cucumber Stichopus chloronotus was determined using gas chromatography (GC) technique. The extracts were prepared separately in methanol, ethanol, phosphate buffer saline (PBS), and distilled water as part of our study to look at the affinity of these solvents in extracting the lipid from sea cucumber. The PBS and distilled water extractions indicate water-soluble components, while the organic fractions are extracted in methanol and ethanol as organic solvents. Furthermore, water extraction is the conventional method practiced in Malaysia. In our analysis the C14:0 (myristic), C16:0 (palmitic), C18:0 (stearic), C18:2 (linoleic), C20:0 (arachidic), and C20:5 (eicosapentaenoic, EPA) were significantly different (p < 0.01) in the four solvent extractions. However, the PBS extraction contained a much higher percentage of EPA (25.69%) compared to 18.89% in ethanol, 7.84% in distilled water, and only 5.83% in methanol, and variances were significantly different (p < 0.01). On the other hand, C22:6 (docosahexaenoic acid or DHA) is much higher in water extraction (57.55%), in comparison to the others where only 3.63% in PBS and 1.20 % in methanol, and this difference is significant at p < 0.01. No DHA was detected in ethanol extractions. Subsequently, C18:1 (oleic acid) was only detected in PBS (21.98%) and water extraction (7.50%). It is interesting that palmitic acid, C16:0 was higher in methanol (20.82%) and ethanol (20.18%), while 12.55% was detected in PBS and only 2.20% in water extraction; and again this was significantly different at p < 0.01. Although our results have shown that all four solvents were different in terms of their ability to extract fatty acids, the major component for tissue repair was well preserved. Probably this is one of the important precocious steps when working with a delicate sea cucumber, in both experimental and/or at the preparative stages. Freshness of the sea cucumber samples is important when undertaking this type of experiment. Finally, we believe that the local sea cucumber S. chloronotus contains all the fatty acids required to play a potential active role in tissue repair.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the psychrophilic bacterium Shewanella gelidimarina ACAM 456 T: molecular species analysis of major phospholipids and biosynthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid

The production of eicosapentaenoic acid [20:5 ω3; EPA] from Shewanella gelidimarina (ACAM 456 T) was investigated with respect to growth temperature and growth on sole carbon sources. The percentage and quantitative yield of EPA remained relatively constant at all growth temperatures within or below the optimal growth temperature region. At higher growth temperatures, these values decreased greatly. Growth on differing sole carbon sources also influenced the percentage and amount of EPA produced, with the fatty acid composition influenced by provision of potential acyl chain primers as sole carbon sources. The highest amounts of EPA occurred from growth on propionic acid and l-leucine respectively, while the highest percentage of EPA occurred from growth on l-proline. Monounsaturated fatty acid components and EPA were concentrated in phosphatidylglycerol (PG), while the proportion of branched-chain fatty acids was elevated in phosphatidylethanolamine (PE); the two major phospholipid classes. Specific associations of EPA with other acyl chains were identified within cellular phospholipid classes. The association of EPA with 17:1 and 18:0 acyl chains in phospholipid species was specific to PG, whereas the association of EPA with i13:0/13:0 and 14:0/i14:0 was specific to PE. Such acyl chain `tailoring' is indicative of the important role of EPA in bacterial membrane adaptive responses. EPA was also a large component (22%) of a non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) fraction within the total lipid extract of the bacterium. This may point toward a particular role of NEFA in polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) metabolism. The formation of EPA was investigated by labelling with l-[U- 14C]serine and sodium [1- 14C]acetate. The accumulation of radiolabel within unsaturated intermediates (di-, tri- and tetraunsaturated fractions) was low, indicating a rapid formation and derivatisation of these components. Similar results were found for the unsaturated fatty acid fractions of both PE and PG using sodium [1- 14C]acetate radiolabel. The regulation of triunsaturated fatty acid components may be a potential control site in PUFA biosynthesis.

Acidolysis of sardine oil by lipase to concentrate eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in glycerides

Lipoprotein lipase from Pseudomonas sp. was the best enzyme to concentrate eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (EPA and DHA) in sardine oil by acidolysis reaction, and acetone was more effective than n-hexane as a solvent for dissolving the reactants and concentrating the two fatty acids. The water concentration in the reaction mixture was a decisive factor governing the enrichment of EPA and DHA and the yield of glycerides. EPA and DHA were more concentrated, but the yield of glycerides decreased, when the water concentration was increased gradually. Thus, the concentration rates of both the fatty acids were low with 0.25% water, although a considerable amount of diglyceride was detectable in the reaction products. The effect of reaction temperature was very slight with the use of acetone; however, the ratio DHA/EPA increased when the temperature was lowered in the presence of n-hexane. When acidolysis was performed at 25°C for 1 h, using 10,000 units of lipase per g of the reactants, the total percentage of EPA and DHA reached 65% in the glycerides and the recoveries of the two acids were 87.4 and 81.3%, respectively, based on the contents in the original sardine oil. The relationship of the enzyme substrate specificity to the reaction results was also investigated.

Quality Evaluation of Four Sources of Brine Shrimp Artemia spp.1

AbstractA study was conducted to compare fatty acid composition, hatching quality, and size of nauplii from four commercial sources of brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) cyse: China (CH), Colombia (COL), Great Salt Lake (GSL), and San Francisco Bay (SFB). The CH brine shrimp had a comparatively high percentage of 20:5(n‐3) fatty acid (eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA), an essential fatty acid for most Iarval fishes, which was 10.4% of the total lipids. The COL, GSL, and SFB sources of cysts contained comparatively low percentages of EPA, 2.9, 1.2, and 1.6%. respectively. Hatching quality was determined by hatching cysts in salt (NaCl) water with a specific gravity of 1.02 at 27 C for 42 h. The COL cysts had the fastest hatching rate, with 50% of the cysts hatching in 13.4 h, while CH cysts hatched at the slowest rate, requiring 25.6 h for 50% of the cysts to hatch. Total percentage hatch was not significantly different among the SFB, COL, and GSL sources, with an average hatching percentage of 84.5, while CH cysts had a significantly lower total percentage hatch of 67.5. The SFB source produced the greatest number of nauplii (1.6 ± 105 per g of cysts) with the smallest length (382 μm), while CH produced the smallest number (8.7 ± 104) with the greatest length (500 μm). These results indicate that there is great variation in nutritional quality, hatching quality, and size of nauplii among commercial sources of brine shrimp cysts, and each of these criteria should be considered in selecting brine shrimp in a development of a feeding strategy for larval culture of a particular species.

Dietary fish oil modulates macrophage fatty acids and decreases arthritis susceptibility in mice.

B10.RIII and B10.G mice were transferred from a diet of laboratory rodent chow to a standard diet in which all the fat (5% by weight) was supplied as either fish oil (17% eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA], 12% docosahexaenoic acid [DHA], 0% arachidonic acid [AA], and 2% linoleic acid) or corn oil (0% EPA, 0% DHA, 0% AA, and 65% linoleic acid). The fatty acid composition of the macrophage phospholipids from mice on the chow diet was similar to that of mice on a corn oil diet. Mice fed the fish oil diet for only 1 wk showed substantial increases in macrophage phospholipid levels of the omega-3 fatty acids (of total fatty acid 4% was EPA, 10% docosapentaenoic acid [DPA], and 10% DHA), and decreases in omega-6 fatty acids (12% was AA, 2% docosatetraenoic acid [DTA], and 4% linoleic acid) compared to corn oil-fed mice (0% EPA, 0% DPA, 6% DHA, 20% AA, 9% DTA, and 8% linoleic acid). After 5 wk this difference between the fish oil-fed and corn oil-fed mice was even more pronounced. Further small changes occurred at 5-9 wk. We studied the prostaglandin (PG) and thromboxane (TX) profile of macrophages prepared from mice fed the two diets just before being immunized with collagen. Irrespective of diet, macrophages prepared from female mice and incubated for 24 h had significantly more PG and TX in the medium than similarly prepared macrophages from male mice. The increased percentage of EPA and decreased percentage of AA in the phospholipids of the macrophages prepared from the fish oil-fed mice was reflected in a reduction in the amount of PGE2 and PGI2 in the medium relative to identically incubated macrophages prepared from corn oil-fed mice. When this same fish oil diet was fed to B10.RIII mice for 26 d before immunization with type II collagen, the time of onset of arthritis was increased, and the incidence and severity of arthritis was reduced compared to arthritis induced in corn oil-fed mice. The females, especially those on the fish oil diet, tended to have less arthritis than the males. These alterations in the fatty acid pool available for PG and leukotriene synthesis suggest a pivotal role for the macrophage and PG in the immune and/or inflammatory response to type II collagen.