Percentage Of Spontaneous Alternation Research Articles

Neuroprotective Effect of Levetiracetam in Combination with Berberine on Scopolamine Induced-Cognitive Impairment in Mice: A Behavioral and Biochemical Approach

Background: Presently, only four drugs have been approved by FDA for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A drug repurposing approach can be fruitful in searching for promising candidates for AD. Objective: The objective of the work was to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of levetiracetam (LEV) in combination with berberine (BER) in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice by applying a drug repositioning approach owing to their antioxidant potential. Methods: Cognitive impairment was induced in mice by scopolamine. Morris water maze, elevated plus maze, and Y-maze were used to evaluate behavioral parameters. Assays for acetylcholinesterase (AChE), reduced glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase, nitrite, TNF-α, and brain histopathology were performed. Results: The transfer latency time and percentage of spontaneous alternation were significantly reduced and significant alterations in AChE and MDA levels, GSH concentration, and improvement in nitrite and catalase levels were also evidenced after the treatment of mice with a combination of LEV and BER in comparison to independent drugs, standard and disease control groups. The antioxidant defense was also improved and TNF-α levels were significantly reduced by a combination of LEV and BER. Improvement in neuronal damage by restoration of the cytoarchitecture of the brain was also seen in the histopathological study of the brain of treatment groups. Conclusion: The present study has demonstrated that the combination of LEV and BER has significantly improved cognition in mice by lipid peroxidation inhibition, augmentation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes, the decline in TNF- α levels, and AChE activity in the brain when compared to individual drugs, standard and disease control owing to their strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials.

Memory-Enhancing and Antioxidant Activities of the Hydroethanolic Leave Extract of Piliostigma reticulatum (Fabaceae) in the Monosodium Glutamate-Induced Alzheimer's Disease Model

Background: Piliostigma reticulatum (Fabaceae) is a plant used in Cameroon for the treatment of madness and migraine. Aims and Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the memory-enhancing and antioxidant activities of the hydroethanolic leaves extract of PR in the monosodium glutamate-induced Alzheimer's disease model. Materials and Methods: The Y-maze, Radial-arm maze and Novel object recognition tests were used to assess short, and long-term memory. At the end of the experiments, the brains of mice were scavenged for biochemical and histological analysis. Results: It was observed that the hydroalcoholic extract of PR leaf significantly reversed the percentage of spontaneous alternation compared to the negative control group at the different doses tested (p<0.01; p<0.001) in the Y-maze test. In the radial arm maze test, the extract significantly (p<0.001) reduced the time spent consuming the bait, the number of reference memory and working memory errors at all doses. The treatment of animals with hydroethanolic extract of PR resulted in a significant increase in the discrimination index (p<0.001) in the unfamiliar object recognition test. In addition, the extract significantly (p < 0.01); p < 0.001) decreased acetylcholinesterase activity,and MDA levels at all tested doses; and significantly (p < 0.05; p < 0.001) increased SOD level and Catalase activity in comparison to the negative control group. The histological analysis showed that the extract of Piliostigma reticulatum protected the different structures of the hippocampus against damage caused by monosodium glutamate. Conclusion : The memoryenhancing induced by the hydroethanolic leaves extract of Piliostigma reticulatum could be due to his antioxidant and anticholinesterase properties. These effects could justify the use of this plant to manage nervous system affections.

Evaluation of the Effect of Cariprazine on Memory and Cognition in Experimental Rodent Models.

The main symptoms of schizophrenia are categorized as positive, negative, and cognitive. Cognitive impairments do not generally respond to antipsychotics. Cariprazine is a novel antipsychotic conceived with the idea that high affinity for D3 receptors may elicit a favorable response in the management of cognitive deficits. We evaluated the pro-cognitive properties of 14-day long pre-treatment with cariprazine (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg b.w. intraperitoneally) in experimental rodent models with scopolamine-induced memory impairment employing novel object recognition test (NORT), T-maze, Y-maze, and passive avoidance tasks (step-through and step-down). Statistical analysis was performed with One Way ANOVA. In NORT cariprazine increased the recognition index. In T-maze and Y-maze cariprazine increased the working memory index as well as the percentage of spontaneous alternation. Cariprazine improved learning and memory in both short-term and long-term memory retention tests in step-down and step-through tasks. Cariprazine improves learning, recognition, and spatial memory in rats with scopolamine-induced memory impairment. Cariprazine's beneficial effect on cognition is likely due to its affinity for D3 receptors, as well as agonism at 5-HT1A receptors. Most probably, the cognitive-enhancing properties of cariprazine are the result of integrated modulation in the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex.

Dichrocephala integrifolia Aqueous Extract Antagonises Chronic and Binges Ethanol Feeding-Induced Memory Dysfunctions: Insights into Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms.

Ethanol consumption is widely accepted despite its addictive properties and its mind-altering effects. This study aimed to assess the effects of Dichrocephala integrifolia against, memory impairment, on a mouse model of chronic and binges ethanol feeding. Mice were divided, into groups of 8 animals each, and received distilled water, Dichrocephala integrifolia aqueous extract (25; 50; 100; or 200 mg/kg) or memantine (200 mg/kg) once a day, while fe, with Lieber-DeCarli control (sham group only) or Lieber-DeCarli ethanol diet ad libitum for 28 days. The Y maze and the novel object recognition (NOR) tests were used to evaluate spatial short-term and recognition memory, respectively. Malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, glutathione levels, and proinflammatory cytokines (Il-1β, TNF-α, and Il-6) were evaluated in brain homogenates following behavioral assessments. The results showed that chronic ethanol administration in mice was associated with a significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the spontaneous alternation percentage and the discrimination index, in the Y maze and the NOR tests, respectively. It significantly (p < 0.01) increased oxidative stress and inflammation markers levels in the brain. Dichrocephala integrifolia (100 and 200 mg/kg) as well as memantine (200 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.001) increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation and the discrimination index, in the Y maze and NOR tests, respectively. Dichrocephala integrifolia (100 and 200 mg/kg) likewise memantine (200 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.01) alleviated ethanol-induced increase, in the brain malondialdehyde level, nitric oxide, Il-1β, TNF-α, and Il-6. From these findings, it can be concluded that Dichrocephala integrifolia counteracted memory impairment, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation induced by chronic ethanol consumption in mice.

Antidepressant-Like Effect of Traditional Medicinal Plant Carthamus Tinctorius in Mice Model through Neuro-Behavioral Tests and Transcriptomic Approach

Major depression disorder (MDD) has become a common life-threatening disorder. Despite the number of studies and the introduced antidepressants, MDD remains a major global health issue. Carthamus tinctorius (safflower) is traditionally used for food and medical purposes. This study investigated the chemical profile and the antidepressant-like effect of the Carthamus tincto-rius hot water extract in male mice and its mechanism using a transcriptomic analysis. The antidepressant effect of hot water extract (50 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg) was investigated in mice versus the untreated group (saline) and positive control group (fluoxetine 10 mg/kg). Hippocampus transcriptome changes were investigated to understand the Carthamus tinctorius mechanism of action. The GC-MS analysis of Carthamus tinctorius showed that hot water extract yielded the highest amount of oleamide as the most active ingredient. Neuro-behavioral tests demonstrated that the safflower treatment significantly reduced immobility time in TST and FST and improved performance in the YMSAT compared to the control group. RNA-seq analysis revealed a significant differential gene expression pattern in several genes such as Ube2j2, Ncor1, Tuba1c, Grik1, Msmo1, and Casp9 related to MDD regulation in 50 mg/kg safflower treatment as compared to untreated and fluoxetine-treated groups. Our findings demonstrated the antidepressant-like effect of safflower hot water extract and its bioactive ingredient oleamide on mice, validated by a significantly shortened immobility time in TST and FST and an increase in the percentage of spontaneous alternation.

Antioxidant and Anticholinesterase Properties of the Aqueous Extract of Balanites aegyptiaca L. Delile Fruit Pulp on Monosodium Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity in Swiss Mice.

Balanites aegyptiaca L. Delile (B. aegyptiaca) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of memory impairment. This work aims to evaluate the antioxidant and anticholinesterase potential of BA fruit pulp extract on excitotoxicity induced by monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG was administered 30 minutes after treatment with B. aegyptiaca aqueous fruit pulp extract (50, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) and vitamin C (100 mg/kg) for 30 days. The negative control group received only MSG, while the control group was given distilled water daily. Behavioral tests parameters (using the novel object recognition, Y-maze, and Barnes maze tests), oxidative stress biomarkers (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and catalase), nitric oxide, and acetylcholinesterase activity and hippocampal architecture were evaluated. Results obtained revealed that different doses of B. aegyptiaca significantly reversed the deleterious effect of MSG on memory. This was displayed by a significant (p < 0.05) increment in the percentage of spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze test and a significant (p < 0.001) increase in discrimination index in novel object recognition observed with 500 mg/kg extract dose. Moreover, the extract (250 and 500 mg/kg doses) significantly (p < 0.001) increased direct search strategy and significantly decreased (p < 0.01) the time taken to find the target hole in the Barnes maze. A modulation of hyperactivity was observed after administration of all extract doses compared to the negative control group in the open arena. Furthermore, the highest dose of the extract caused a significant (p < 0.001) improvement in antioxidant enzymes activity, associated with a significant (p < 0.001) decrement in nitric oxide and malondialdehyde concentrations and a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity. Treatment with the extract also restored normal hippocampal cell architecture. B. aegyptiaca fruit pulp extract could thus confer neuroprotection through its antioxidant and anticholinesterase potential.

Effect of ramosetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist on the severity of seizures and memory impairment in electrical amygdala kindled rats

The entorhinal cortex (EC) plays a pivotal role in epileptogenesis and seizures. EC expresses high density of serotonergic receptors, especially 5-HT3 receptors. Cognitive impairment is common among people with epilepsy. The present study investigated the role of 5-HT3 receptor on the severity of seizures and learning and memory impairment by electrical kindling of amygdala in rats. The amygdala kindling was conducted in a chronic kindling manner in male Wistar rats. In fully kindled animals, ramosetron (as a potent and selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist) was microinjected unilaterally (ad doses of 1, 10 or 100 µg/0.5 µl) into the EC 5 min before the novel object recognition (NOR) and Y-maze tests or kindling stimulations. Applying ramosetron at the concentration of 100 μg/0.5 µl (but not at 1 and 10 µg/0.5 µl) reduced afterdischarge (AD) duration and increased stage 4 latency in the kindled rats. Moreover, the obtained data from the NOR test showed that treatment by ramosetron (10 and 100 µg/0.5 µl) increased the discrimination index in the fully kindled animals. Microinjection of ramosetron (10 and 100 µg/0.5 µl) in fully kindled animals reversed the kindling induced changes in the percentage of spontaneous alternation in Y-maze task. The findings demonstrated an anticonvulsant role for a selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist microinjected into the EC, therefore, suggesting an excitatory role for the EC 5-HT3 receptors in the amygdala kindling model of epilepsy. This anticonvulsive effect was accompanied with a restoring effect on cognitive behavior in NOR and Y-maze tests.

Apple phenolic extracts ameliorate lead-induced cognitive impairment and depression- and anxiety-like behavior in mice by abating oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis via the miR-22-3p/SIRT1 axis.

Lead can lead to neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment. In this study, for the first time, the protective effects and working mechanisms of apple phenolic extracts (APEs) against lead acetate (Pb(Ac)2)-induced cognitive impairment and depression- and anxiety-like behavior were examined in vivo. Forty male mice were administered daily (via gastric gavage; 8 weeks) with 0.9% normal saline (control), Pb(Ac)2 (20 ppm), APE (200 ppm) or Pb(Ac)2 (20 ppm) + APE (200 ppm). The APE contained five major phenolic compounds: chlorogenic acid, proanthocyanidin B2, epicatechin, phloridzin and phloretin. Behavioral tests, histopathological examinations and biochemical analyses revealed that Pb(Ac)2-treated mice exhibited cognitive and behavioral deficits (i.e. a reduced percentage of spontaneous alternation, prolonged duration of immobility and decreased open field test scores compared with the control. Pb(Ac)2 exposure significantly increased cellular oxidative damage and the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1) and pro-apoptotic proteins (caspase 3, caspase 9 and Bax), while downregulating the expression of Bcl-2 in the brain. APE administration alleviated these Pb(Ac)2-induced changes through regulating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and apoptosis via the miR-22-3p/Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) signaling pathway. Taken together, the APE has the potential to treat lead-induced neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disorders via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic actions.

Comparative efficacy of haloperidol and placebo for treatment of delirium induced by biperiden and LPS in adult male rats based on their learning style and change in their short-term spatial memory

Background and Objectives: Delirium refers to acute loss of consciousness and is characterized by confused thinking and impaired orientation. It is a life-threatening, but reversible syndrome manifested by cognitive impairment, abnormal psychomotor activity and sleep disturbances. Due to high prevalence in hospitalized patients and high rate of morbidity and mortality, delirium significantly decreases the prognosis of hospitalized patients.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: This experimental animal study evaluated 54 adult male Wistar rats over 2 months of age that weighed 200 to 230 g. Of all, 24 rats received biperiden (40 mg/kg) while the remaining 24 received 50 µg/kg LPS. Induction of delirium was ensured using a Y-maze after 3 hours. The control group included 6 rats The efficacy of different doses of haloperidol for treatment of delirium was assessed 3 h after injection using the Y-maze . Data were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test via GraphPad Prism.&#x0D; Results: Haloperidol at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 mg/kg dosage significantly increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation and improved the memory, consciousness and learning compared with biperiden and LPS groups (P&lt;0.01). No significant difference was noted between the haloperidol groups regarding efficacy (P&gt;0.05).&#x0D; Conclusion: Delirium is characterized by attention deficit, impaired orientation, changes in memory, consciousness, perception and mood, and psychotic symptoms. Detection of the complete spectrum of delirium signs and symptoms in an animal that cannot talk (rat) is obviously difficult .using of Y-maze can facilitate this problem .

Effect of forced treadmill exercise on stimulation of BDNF expression, depression symptoms, tactile memory and working memory in LPS-treated rats

Neuroinflammation has been implicated in cognitive dysfunction and the occurrence of depression in neurodegenerative diseases. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is believed to be involved with the benefits of exercise training in boosting memory and learning processes and antidepressant therapies. This study aimed to investigate the effect of forced treadmill exercise on hippocampal BDNF expression levels, depression symptoms, tactile memory and working memory in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated rats. For this purpose, 40 male Wistar rats received 0.25 mg/kg of LPS or saline intraperitoneally for 9 consecutive days before exercise. They again received a single injection of 0.5 mg/kg of LPS or saline on days 20 and 41 after exercise. Exercise groups had to run on a motorized treadmill 5 days a week for 8 weeks. Following the last exercise training session, forced swim test (FST), Y maze and novel object recognition (NOR) task were performed. Finally, the hippocampus of rats was removed and used for determination of BDNF expression levels by real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR). The data showed that LPS decreased BDNF expression levels, Y maze score, and recognition index in NOR and increased immobility time in FST (p < 0.05). In contrast, forced treadmill exercise increased BDNF expression levels and improved the percentage of spontaneous alternation, recognition index, and immobility time in LPS-treated rats (p < 0.05). There was a significant correlation between BDNF expression levels with immobility time and recognition index (p < 0.05) but not with the percentage of spontaneous alternation (p > 0.05). The findings suggest that forced treadmill exercise may protect the brain of LPS-treated rats by improving the symptoms of depression and cognitive function through its effect on BDNF expression levels.

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae) Alleviates Working Memory Impairment and Restores Neurochemical Alterations in the Prefrontal Cortex of D-Galactose-Treated Rats

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive cognitive dysfunction. However, pharmacological treatments are symptomatic and have many side effects, opening the opportunity to alternative medicine. This study investigated the antiamnesic effect of the aqueous extract of Ziziphus jujuba on D-galactose-induced working memory impairment in rats. Impairment of working memory was induced by subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of D-galactose (350 mg/kg/day) to rats for 21 days. These animals were then subjected to object recognition and Y-maze tests. Rats with confirmed memory impairment were treated per os (p.o.) with tacrine (10 mg/kg), aspirin (20 mg/kg, p.o.), extract (41.5, 83, and 166 mg/kg, p.o.), and distilled water (10 mL/kg, p.o.) daily for 14 days. At the end of the treatments, alteration in working memory was assessed using the above paradigms. Afterward, these animals were euthanized, and cholinergic, proinflammatory, and neuronal damage markers were analyzed in the prefrontal cortex. Rats administered D-galactose and treated with distilled water had impaired working memory (evidenced by decreased time spent on the novel object and discrimination index) and decreased spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze. D-galactose also decreased the levels of acetylcholinesterase and acetylcholine and increased the level of glial fibrillary acidic protein, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). Treatment with the extract (166 mg/kg) reversed the time spent on the novel object and the discrimination index. It equally increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation. Neurochemical analysis revealed that the extract markedly alleviated acetylcholinesterase activity and neuroinflammation. These observations were corroborated by the reduction in neuronal loss. Taken together, these results suggest that Ziziphus jujuba aqueous extract possesses an antiamnesic effect. This effect seems to involve cholinergic and anti-inflammatory modulations. This, therefore, claims using this plant in the treatment of dementia in Cameroon subject to further studies and trials.

Lovastatin attenuates sevoflurane-induced cognitive disorder in aged rats via reducing Aβ accumulation

As a general anesthetic widely used in surgical, sevoflurane has been shown to cause cognitive and memory deficits in the elderly. It's important to find out agents that can counteract sevoflurane-induced cognitive dysfunction. This study is aimed to investigate the effect of lovastatin on sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairment in aged rats and reveal the potential mechanisms. BV-2 cells, rat hippocampal neurons or male aged rats were exposed to 2% sevoflurane for 5 h. The cells were pretreated with 10 μM lovastatin. The rats were intraperitoneally injected with 5 mg/kg/day lovastatin for three days. The results showed that lovastatin enhanced exosomal IDE secretion from sevoflurane-exposed BV-2 cells and promoted Aβ degradation. Lovastatin treatment also inhibited the increased expressions of β-secretase 1 (BACE1) and γ-secretase in hippocampal neurons under sevoflurane exposure in vitro. In animal experiments, the discrimination index in novel object recognition test and percentage of spontaneous alternation in Y-maze test were significantly elevated after lovastatin administration. In addition, Aβ plaque area and contents of soluble Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 in the hippocampal tissues were decreased upon lovastatin treatment. Furthermore, lovastatin reversed sevoflurane-induced Aβ accumulation via up-regulating IDE expression, and down-regulating amyloid precursor protein (APP)-related protein expression (β-C-terminal fragment (CTF), BACE1 and γ-secretase). In conclusion, lovastatin alleviates sevoflurane-induced cognitive deficient in aged rats via promoting Aβ degradation and reducing Aβ production. Lovastatin may be beneficial in preventing anesthetic-induced cognitive impairment.

Effect of Afghan Senjed (Elaeagnus Angustifolia L.) Leaves Aqueous Extract on Memory of Male Rats

This study is aimed to evaluate the effect of Elaeagnus Angustifolia leaves extract (EALE) on the memory of male rats. Rats were divided into 7 groups: 4 groups in the first stage (Control, EALE 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) to determine the effective-dose of EALE on memory; and 3 groups in the second stage (Normal, Scopolamine and EALE effective-dose) to evaluate the effect of EALE on scopolamine-induced memory impairment. Rats received EALE by i.p. administration for 14 days and the memory function of all groups was evaluated by the Y-maze test on days 8 and 15. Only scopolamine and effective dose of EALE groups were received scopolamine 30 min before Y-maze test. The total cholesterol and triglyceride levels of stage 2 rats were also measured. On day 8, the percentage of spontaneous alternation (%SA) was significantly increased in EALE 400 mg/kg group, as compared with the control group. On day 15, there was a significant difference in %SA only between EALE 100 mg/kg group and the control group. The %SA was significantly increased in the EALE effective-dose group only on day 15, as compared with scopolamine group (P&lt;0.05). The effective-dose of EALE was also significantly decreased the total cholesterol (P&lt;0.01) and triglyceride (P&lt;0.001) levels in comparison with scopolamine group. In conclusion, a high dose of EALE only in a short-term administration period and its low dose in a long-term administration period had memory-enhancing effects. The low dose of EALE as an effective-dose of EALE could reverse the scopolamine-induced memory impairment.

English

The present study investigated novelty-induced behavior, learning and memory enhancing activities of aqueous and ethanol fruit extracts of Solanum incanum Linn. using mice models. The mice were divided into sixteen (16) groups of five (5) mice each and treated with distilled water (10 ml/kg, i.p); 7.5, 15, 30 mg/kg (i.p) of both aqueous and ethanol fruit extracts; scopolamine (0.4 mg/kg) and scopolamine (0.4 mg/kg, i.p) plus pramiracetam (100 mg/kg, i.p), 7.5, 15, 30 mg/kg, (i.p) of both aqueous and ethanol fruit extracts. On the 8th day of the experiment, the animal&rsquo;s locomotor, rearing, grooming, percentage alternation, transfer latency and escape latency were measured. Intraperitoneal administration of S. incanum fruit extracts showed a significant decrease in locomotion, rearing and grooming when compared with distilled water. S. incanum fruit extracts at the tested doses significantly increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation and attenuated the learning and memory impairment induced by scopolamine as indicated in reduction of the transfer latency and escape latency. In conclusion, both aqueous and ethanol extracts of S. incanum fruit significantly improved learning and memory in mice and this could justify the ethnomedicinal use of this plant. Key words: Solanum incanum, novelty-induced behaviour, learning, memory, albino mice

Cholinergic-enhancing and antioxidant effect of Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. (Fabaceae) landrace aqueous extract on scopolamine-induced amnesia in male swiss mice

Background: Currently, no drug effectively curbs down the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and thus early prevention is important. Objectives: The present study was conducted to investigate the protective effects of the aqueous extract of Vigna subterranea seed landrace on amnesia induced by scopolamine in mice. Materials and Methods: V. subterranea aqueous extract (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg BW) was administered by gavage for 9 consecutive days and memory impairment was induced by repeated intraperitoneal injection of scopolamine (1.5 mg/kg). The Y-maze (YM), Morris water maze (MWM), novel object recognition paradigm (NOR), and the T maze™ were used to assess learning, memory, and retention. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and acetyclcholine esterase activity were also evaluated in the mouse hippocampi homogenates. Results: V. subterranea aqueous extract (400 mg/kg) significantly increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation in the YM task and decreased escape latency in the MWM. Moreover, this dose brought about a significant improvement in the time spent in the preferred TM arm and discrimination index in the NOR tasks despite repeated scopolamine injection. Additionally, low acetylcholine esterase levels, reduced lipid peroxidation (MDA), but increased antioxidant enzyme (CAT and SOD) activity were observed in hippocampi homogenate of mice pretreated with the extract. A protective action against hippocampal cell damage was also evident. Conclusion: This finding suggests that the aqueous extract of V. subterranea seed landrace may improve learning and memory.

Salvianolic Acid B improves cognitive impairment by inhibiting neuroinflammation and decreasing Aβ level in Porphyromonas gingivalis-infected mice.

Amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation is one of the main pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), the pathogen of chronic periodontitis, could cause Aβ accumulation and was identified in the brain of AD patients. Salvianolic Acid B (SalB) has been proven to have the neuroprotective effect. Whether SalB could protect against P. gingivalis-induced cognitive impairment is still unknown. In this study, a P. gingivalis-infected mouse model was employed to study the neuroprotective role of SalB. The results showed that SalB (20 and 40 mg/kg) treatment for 4 weeks could shorten the escape latency and improve the percentage of spontaneous alternation in the P. gingivalis-infected mice. SalB inhibited the levels of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde, while increased the levels of antioxidative enzymes (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase). SalB decreased the levels of IL-1β and IL-6, increased the mRNA levels of bdnf and ngf in the brain of P. gingivalis-infected mice. In addition, SalB obviously decreased the level of Aβ. SalB elevated the protein expression of ADAM10, while downregulated BACE1 and PS1. SalB increased the protein expression of LRP1, while decreased RAGE. In conclusion, SalB could improve cognitive impairment by inhibiting neuroinflammation and decreasing Aβ level in P. gingivalis-infected mice.

Cholinergic Enhancing and Antioxidant Effect of Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. (Fabaceae) Landrace Aqueous Extract on Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia in Male Swiss Mice

The present study was conducted to investigate protective effects of the aqueous extract of V. subterranea seeds landrace on amnesia induced by scopolamine in mice. V. subterranea aqueous extract (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg BW) was administered by gavage for nine consecutive days and memory impairment was induced by repeated intraperitoneal injection of scopolamine (1.5 mg/kg). The Y-maze (YM), Morris water maze (MWM), novel object recognition paradigm (NOR) and the T maze (TM) were used to assess learning, memory and retention. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and Acetylcholine esterase activity was also evaluated in the mice hippocampi homogenates. V. subterranea aqueous extract (400 mg/kg) significantly increased the percentage of spontaneous alternation in the YM task and decreased escape latency in the MWM. Moreover, this dose brought about a significantly improvement in the time spent in the preferred TM arm and discrimination index in the NOR tasks despite repeated scopolamine injection. Additionally, low acetylcholine esterase levels, reduced lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde) but increased antioxidant enzymes (catalase and superoxide dismutase) activity was observed in hippocampi homogenate of mice pre-treated with the extract. A protective action against hippocampal cell damage was also evident. This finding suggests that the aqueous extract of V. subterranea seed landrace may improve learning and memory.

The Effects of Idazoxan and Efaroxan Improves Memory and Cognitive Functions in Rats Experimental research

Investigating the effects of idazoxan and efaroxan imidazoline receptor antagonists on cognitive functions with the rat Y-maze test; an internationally recognized experimental pattern of behavior, is to be used in order to evaluate the effects of test substances on the simple spatial memory of the laboratory animals. Our experimental evaluation tested the influence induced by idazoxan and efaroxan on the short-term memory on rats. In the experiment were used eighteen (18) male Wistar rats which were randomly divided into three groups (I - Control, II - IDZ and III - EFR) comprising of 6 animals each, treated intraperitoneally according to the following protocol: group I (Control): distilled water 0.5 mL/100 g body weight; group II (IDZ): idazoxan 3 mg/kg body weight; group III (EFR): efaroxan 1 mg/kg body weight. The purpose of this research was to assess the eligibility using the Y-maze test, involving: latency of the first arm visited, the number of arms visited, and the time spent into the arms, the number of returns of the experimental animals in the same arm, the number of alternations, percentage of spontaneous alternation. In this work, manifestations of the natural behavior of the animals tested was expressed by their choice of goal arm alternation. Statistical data processing reveals that: the administration of IDZ, as well as of EFR was accompanied by a tendency to enter a less recently visited arm and reduced the total number of arms visited, statistically significant (p[0.05) compared to control group. In this experiment, the use of these two imidazoline receptor antagonists did not considerably influence the reference memory, when pursuing the latency of the first arm visited, compared to the group treated with distilled water. The effects of IDZ and EFR on the percentage of time spent in the arms were sorted in descending order in this behavioral experimental model (IDZ]Control]EFR). The results demonstrate that the treatment with imidazoline agents optimizes the cognitive function of the animals, improving their learning ability, in the rat Y-maze Test. Regular exercise can reduce depression-, anxiety-, and impaired cognitive-like behaviors, and in conclusion these substances would be a useful pharmacological agents for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction.

5-Phenyl-1, 2, 4-Triazole- 3- Thiol subchronic exposure induce neuro-comportemental desorder in Wistar rats

Triazole and its derivatives possess a great importance in medicinal chemis-try with different biological effects; antiviral, antifungical, antibacterial and analgesic. The purpose of the present work is to assess the effects of 5 phe-nyl 1,2,4 Traizole 3 thiol (5 PTT) through a neurobehavioral exploration in Wistar rats. 5 PTT exposured rats showed increased body weight and brain weight. The open field test revealed a significant decrease in the number of crossed squares. However, the results related to the forced swimming test present a significant rise in the immobility time compared to the vehicle group. Furthermore, the Y maze test show that exposure to 5 PTT is associated with impairment of spatial learning performance and memory deficit is explained by a significant increase of the percentage of spontaneous alterna-tion in the exposed animals, the plus maze test revealed that 5 PTT admin-istrations reduced significantly the open arms time. Histological brain analy-sis show an alteration of tissue architecture and perivascular palisade in treated rats compared to vehicle rats. Our study demonstrated that 5 PTT exposures can cause neurotoxic effects that disrupt spatial learning and memory performance and induce a depressive state which reflects an altera-tion of the neurodevelopment process.

인지 및 기억 개선 기능성 식품으로서 산사의 효과

Crataegus pinnatifida (hawthorn) is highly popular as a pleasant-tasting functional food and herb that can also be used for treating cardiovascular diseases. The improvements in learning and memory brought about by C. pinnatifida have been investigated, and the mechanism of action in scopolamine-induced amnesia model in mice was elucidated. C. pinnatifida extract was orally administered to the mice, and scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, was injected 30 min before the Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze test. It was observed that C. pinnatifida extract improved the percentage of spontaneous alternation, increased the step-through latency, and shortened the escape latency, respectively. C. pinnatifida extract contained 380.70 kcal energy, which had contributions from carbohydrate (92.5%), sugars (92.4%), crude protein (1.1%) and crude fat (0.7%). Polyphenol and flavonoid contents assessed using Folin-Denis’ reagent and aluminium nitrate revealed 9.8±0.3 mg tannic acid equivalent/g of polyphenol and 18.9±0.4 mg quercetin equivalent/g of flavonoid, respectively. Furthermore, C. pinnatifida extract inhibited acetylcholinesterase in the whole brain. Taken together, this study demonstrated that C. pinnatifida ameliorated memory and cognitive function, indicating that it might be useful as a functional food and could also be an efficient candidate as an anti-amnesia agents.