Perceived Task Difficulty Research Articles

대학 내 이공계 학생의 액션러닝 참여 경험에 관한 현상학적 연구

The purpose of this study is to gather the experiences of engineering and science students participating in action learning within universities and to explore the factors that indicate the support they require from these experiences. To achieve this objective, the phenomenological research method proposed by Colaizzi(1978) was employed to identify the common experiences of the participants. A purposive sampling method was utilized to select six engineering and science students who engaged in action learning as research participants. Data were collected through unstructured in-depth interviews, participant observation, and a thorough literature review. The results revealed three categories, ten theme clusters, and twenty-five themes. Based on the characteristics of engineering and science students identified through their action learning experiences, their support needs encompass 'a deficiency in communication skills', 'challenges associated with selecting manufacturing companies', 'an increased necessity for persuasion and study due to the specialization of their majors', and 'a discrepancy in perceived task difficulty between instructors and students'. The role of facilitators in addressing these needs was also examined.

PTSD Among Body Handlers: The Role of Task-Related Characteristics, Coping, and Well-Being

In this study, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was examined among 161 Israeli military reservists who were recruited to gather and identify the bodies and body parts of civilians and soldiers killed in the October 7th, 2023 Hamas terror attack on Israel. The aims were to examine PTSD levels as well as the associations between demographic variables, task-related characteristics, coping strategies, well-being, and odds of being diagnosed with PTSD. Using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5), 20% of the participants were found to have PTSD. Logistic regression indicated that a one-point increase in emotion-focused coping via distancing increased the odds of a PTSD diagnosis by 3.76 times; a one-point increase in perceived task difficulty increased the odds by 1.81; and a one-point decrease in well-being increased the odds by 1.06. A significant interaction showed that problem-focused coping was associated with a higher risk of PTSD among younger participants but a lower risk among older ones. Additionally, well-being served as a protective factor for those who perceived the task as mentally difficult. The study points to the high traumatic potential of handling bodies. It also indicates that the use of distancing oneself from one’s emotions is highly non-adaptive.

The Moderating Role of Interest in the Relationship between Perceived Task Difficulty and Invested Mental Effort

Including motivational variables such as interest in the cognitive load framework is an ongoing process. Of particular interest is the question of how motivational variables influence the investment of mental effort. In this study, we investigated how topic interest affects the investment of mental effort in simple tasks. A total of 1543 students’ judgments regarding invested mental effort, perceived task difficulty, and topic interest for 32 tasks of a chemistry test were analyzed at the task level based on item response theory parameters. Additionally, objective task difficulty was calculated. The Rasch parameters were used for correlation and moderated regression analyses. The results indicated that when perceived task difficulty was low, students invested more mental effort in solving tasks of low topic interest compared to tasks of high topic interest. With increasing perceived task difficulty, the amount of invested mental effort rose for tasks of low as well as high topic interest. However, the difference between tasks of low and high topic interest in the amount of invested mental effort decreased as perceived task difficulty increased and even vanished when perceived task difficulty roughly corresponded to students’ performance capability. These results are in line with flow theory and the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. When solving tasks that match their performance capability, students can experience a flow situation. However, when solving rather easy tasks of low interest, students can experience motivational costs in terms of additional effort, such as an increased need for motivational self-regulation. The results of this study provide a basis for systematically investigating and better understanding the relationship between interest, task difficulty, invested mental effort, flow experience, and emotional costs.

The usability of a wireless vocal fold vibration switch for individuals with complex communication needs: a caregiver-inclusive iterative home-based evaluation

Purpose: A vocal fold vibration switch is a type of access technology that detects voluntary vibrations of the vocal cords. In two sequential usability studies, we evaluated successive prototypes of a novel wireless vocal fold vibration switch. Methods: Each usability study enroled 7 dyads consisting of individuals with complex communication needs and their caregivers. Each study entailed a 2-week period of independent home use flanked by initial and final usability tests. Each usability test comprised nine tasks including donning and configuration of the switch, connecting it to other devices, and actual activation of the switch. Perceived task difficulty was measured via nine 21-point scales, while caregiver impressions were captured through open-ended questions, both encapsulated within a usability questionnaire. Caregivers described their experience in an open-ended interview in the second usability study. Results: Perceived task difficulty was uniformly low with both prototypes. The vast majority of tasks could be completed either independently or with hints. A small number of contraindications for use were identified with the second prototype, which included episodes of dystonia and heavy breathing, and some aspects of the physical design and robustness were flagged as needing further improvement. Conclusions: The overall qualitative feedback was overwhelmingly positive with caregivers generally desiring to keep and eager to recommend the device to others. Additionally, caregivers expressed that the vocal fold vibration switch expanded the switch user’s capabilities, and they foresaw applications beyond the study setting. Overall, our findings suggest that the wireless vocal fold vibration switch is useable in the home setting.

Math task experiences and motivation to learn more: How prior knowledge and interest interact with Task‐Interest & Task‐Difficulty perceptions and feed a desire to reengage

AbstractHow do task experiences support proximal and longer‐term desires to reengage? Central to this question is the interplay between perceptions of task difficulty and the situational interest. This interplay is increasingly researched but not yet well understood. Micro‐analytic, latent studies are important tools for replicating past findings and extending our understanding in this area. This study aimed to extend our understanding of the interplay between readiness (prior knowledge and individual interest), a sequence of mathematics task experiences (situational interest and perceived difficulty) and reengagement beyond the set of tasks (i.e. optional follow‐up engagement). Participants (ages 20–49; n = 301) completed a series of maths tasks online, self‐reporting their task experiences after each task. Participants were offered an optional opportunity to follow‐up with the task content as a measure of their continued interest. Both readiness components assessed were important predictors of future situational interest (positive) and perceptions of task difficulty (negative). Persistent interconnections between the task experience components across time supported past evidence regarding the important role of situational interest and the challenges of perceived difficulty for sustained engagement. Modelling indicated that task success (β = 0.36), situational interest (β = 0.16) and perceptions of task difficulty (β = 0.21) can converge on choices to reengage with an object going forward.

Buffering the Effects of Students’ Perceived Task Difficulty on Cognitive Engagement in EFL Writing Classrooms: The Role of Foreign Language Enjoyment and Growth Mindset

Submitted Currently, research on second language acquisition (SLA) and psychology of language learning has conceived foreign language learning as a complex system of beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions that contribute immensely to shape students’ learning experiences. The significance of such research lies in the fact that they provide a holistic perspective of FL learning by considering the multiple and interrelated interactions of beliefs, emotional and cognitive factors, rather than examining any single variable in isolation. Therefore, this study seeks to provide such insights by examining the interaction between perception of task difficulty and cognitive engagement in an EFL writing classroom, taking into consideration the possible effects of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and mindset on such relationship. Data were collected from 218 Saudi undergraduate students using a questionnaire. Results revealed that: a) students’ perception of task difficulty is linked to their cognitive engagement; b) FLE acts as a buffer against the negative effects of difficult EFL writing tasks on students’ cognitive engagement; c) growth mindset has no moderating role in the relationship between perceived difficulty and cognitive engagement.

The More, the Better? Exploring the Effects of Modal and Codal Redundancy on Learning and Cognitive Load: An Experimental Study

This study explores how receiving identical information from different sources affects learning and cognitive load, focusing on two types of redundancy: modal redundancy, where redundant information comes from two visual sources (images and written text), and codal redundancy, where redundant information comes from two sources of different modalities which utilize the same symbol system (spoken and written text). Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects design involving modal (yes/no) and codal (yes/no) redundancy, 158 participants completed twenty learning tasks, consisting of ten construction and ten recall tasks. Additionally, they rated their cognitive load by indicating their perceived task difficulty and mental load. Overall, results indicate positive main effects of modal redundancy and negative effects of codal redundancy on learning and cognitive load. Furthermore, significant interaction effects suggest that modal redundancy may counterbalance the negative effects of codal redundancy, implying a compensatory mechanism in cognitive processing for construction tasks. These results highlight the importance of considering both modal and codal redundancy and their interaction in instructional design.

The effects of task complexity on linguistic complexity and perception in English native speakers’ and L2 speakers’ argumentative writing

This study investigates how task complexity affects native speakers’ and second language (L2) learners’, and experts’ perceptions of task difficulty in writing tasks. It also explores how task complexity influences English native speakers’ and L2 learners’ linguistic complexity in their writing. Ninety participants performed one simple and one complex argumentative writing task manipulated by task complexity (± elements and reasoning demands) and counterbalanced. Their essays were analyzed using linguistic complexity metrics. The results showed that English native speakers, L2 learners, and experts perceived the complex task as requiring more mental effort, being more stressful, and creating more planning and writing time pressure than the simple task. The native speakers demonstrated greater overall linguistic complexity than the L2 learners in the two writing tasks. However, both English native speakers and L2 learners produced longer T-units and more diverse vocabulary in the complex task than in the simple task but also produced more syntactically similar structures in the complex task. Significant interaction effects of group (L1 and L2) and task (± elements and reasoning demands) were found for five linguistic complexity metrics. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed in light of Robinson’s cognition hypothesis and Hayes’s writing model.

Applying Expectancy-Value Theory to Understand Investment Interest in the Young Generation

This study aims to explore the investment interest of students at Universitas Negeri Makassar (UNM) through the lens of Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT). The research examines how students' expectations and perceived value influence their interest in investing. Data were collected from a sample of UNM students, and the findings indicate that both expectancy and value have a positive and significant impact on their investment interest. This suggests that enhancing students' expectations and perceptions of the value of investment could lead to a greater interest in investing. The study employed a quantitative approach using SPSS for data analysis. The results reveal that students' investment decisions are strongly influenced by their perceptions of task difficulty, effort, behavioral attitudes, and subjective norms. Additionally, motivation and self-confidence play crucial roles in shaping their investment interest. These findings have important implications for educational strategies, highlighting the need to foster a supportive environment that builds students' confidence and enhances their understanding of the benefits of investing. By doing so, educators can encourage students to develop a stronger interest in and commitment to investment activities.

The Effects of Task Timing and Complexity on Students’ Perceived Task Difficulty and Reported Math Strategy Use

Despite the robust correlation between math anxiety and math performance, little is known about how students’ perceptions of math task difficulty or employment of math strategies may relate to math task types. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in students’ task difficulty perceptions and math strategy use across types of math tasks (i.e., overtly or covertly timed, simple or complex problems). Participants included 113 fourth- and fifth-grade students who completed four study conditions in a randomized, counterbalanced order in which tasks varied in terms of timing (i.e., covert or overt) and task difficulty (simple or complex computation). Students demonstrated small to medium differences in task difficulty perceptions and strategy use across their baseline trait math anxiety and math performance such that students with higher trait math anxiety reported using more strategies and tasks being more difficult. Generally, math task timing did not affect perceived difficulty or strategy use. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Impact Statement Student perceptions of math tasks and the strategies they employ can affect their math performance and engagement with math, which in turn can impact future math performance. Of note in this study, fourth- and fifth-grade students with math difficulties and high initial math anxiety demonstrated better math performance and lower perceived task difficulty under overtly timed conditions, underscoring the utility of timing for math fluency performance, particularly for students with math difficulties.

Perceptions of task difficulty predict cognitive effort for older adults

ABSTRACT This study examined age differences in effort devoted to completing cognitively demanding tasks. Fifty-two younger adults ages 18–30 years (M age = 21.19) and 57 older adults ages 61–93 years (M age = 76.56) completed a series of memory tests. Following each test, participants rated the test’s difficulty and had their blood pressure measured. Effort was indexed by systolic blood pressure response (SBP-R) with greater increases in SBP-R reflecting more effort. Multilevel modeling was used to examine age differences in the intraindividual association between trial-level subjective task difficulty and trial-level effort. Results showed that increases in task difficulty were significantly related to decreases in SBP-R for the older but not younger adults, suggesting the older adults disengaged from the tests they perceived as highly difficult. Findings support Selective Engagement Theory (Hess, 2014), which suggests the perceived cognitive costs of completing difficult tasks may reduce older adults’ motivation to engage in the tasks.

Preference for Student Activity over Teacher Guidance: Effects of Task-Related Knowledge and Learner or Instructor Roles

During interactions within educational settings, individuals may find themselves in the position of a learner or an instructor. This study examined how individuals change their perceptions of task difficulty and their preferences for educational approaches oriented toward teacher guidance and student activity based on whether they possess task-related knowledge and whether they are in a learner or an instructor role. University students enrolled in teacher education programs were divided into four groups based on two variables: knowledge (with or without) and role (learner or instructor). Study 1 (N = 359) utilized a between-participants design, whereas Study 2 (N = 141) employed a mixed design, with role as a between-participants variable and knowledge as a within-participants variable. Participants with task-related knowledge perceived a mathematical problem to be less difficult and exhibited a stronger preference for student activity, and participants in the instructor role showed a stronger preference for student activity. These results suggest that individuals tend to distance themselves from teaching behaviors when they have task-related knowledge and are in an instructor position, thus highlighting the potential misalignment of preferences between learners who lack knowledge and more knowledgeable instructors.

Predicting changes in task difficulty perception based on visual behavior in mobile health information search

With the proliferation of online health resources, mobile health information search has become the new norm, in which the task difficulty perception in search affects the user's search experience. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between visual behavior that reflects users' cognitive processing and changes in perceived task difficulty, thereby predicting such changes.This study was conducted through a controlled experiment. 46 participants were recruited to complete four tasks. Visual behavior data were collected through eye-tracking technology, and changes in task difficulty perception were measured through pre-task and post-task questionnaires. The mobile health information search process is divided into three search activities: querying, browsing, and viewing activities. Predictors were inspected from the overall session and individual search activity levels using the Mann-Whitney U test, and then K-Nearest Neighbor, Extreme-Trees, Naive Bayesian, Support Vector Machine, Logistic Regression algorithms were used to predict and evaluate prediction effects.The results showed significant differences in participants' fixation and saccade behaviors between increases and decreases in task difficulty, both at the overall session and individual search activity level. The logistic regression algorithm demonstrated the highest predictive performance, Furthermore, visual behavioral indicators for the browsing activity proved to perform better relative to the other search activities.This study highlights the importance of visual behavioral indicators as reliable predictors of changes in users' perceived task difficulty in mobile health information search. It can help health information providers and administrators to provide timely and targeted assistance and implement effective guidance strategies.

Duet playing in dementia care: a new therapeutic music technology

Purpose Supporting the relational worlds of people living with dementia, especially the spousal dyad, is a growing focus in dementia care as is advancing the therapeutic use of music in dementia care. This paper describes a mixed-methods, multi-phase, iterative research study designed to develop the Music Memory Makers (MMM) Duet System, a novel therapeutic music technology, that allows non-musicians to play a personalized repertoire of songs arranged as duets. Methods Following a pilot phase to iteratively assess and refine the MMM Duet System for recreational and therapeutic purposes, multiple sources of data were used to investigate five older spousal dyads’ experiences with the system, two couples living with dementia and three who were not. We assessed perceptions of task difficulty, joint agency, and enjoyment as well as therapeutic benefits associated with enhancing the spousal relationship and sense of couplehood. Results Findings suggest playing meaningful songs together is an enjoyable interactive activity that prompts musical reminiscence, involves joint agency, and supports relationship continuity within a relational, positive approach to dementia care. All couples mastered the task, none evaluated it as “very challenging,” and positive couple interactions were evoked, commonly before and after playing the duets. Conclusions The MMM Duet System is recommended for further research and development as an innovative way to support couples living with dementia with commercial implications, and as a new music technology suitable for use as a research tool.

Learning to produce and transcribe cardinal vowels: speech and language therapy students’ perception of task difficulty

ABSTRACT Learning vowel transcription skills is crucial to function as a Speech and Language Therapist (SLT). However, vowel transcription is commonly regarded as particularly difficult and therefore often avoided. Despite the importance of accurate transcriptions, little is known about all the factors that influence the process of learning vowel transcription, which usually includes the learning of the Cardinal Vowel (CV) system. There are only a few studies that investigate how CVs are learnt and what factors lead to successful learning. The current study reports students’ perceived difficulty of producing and transcribing CVs as a first step to identify how perceived difficulty affects phonetic learning. Perceived difficulty ratings for the production and transcription of 12 CVs collected from 155 students studying towards a qualification as an SLT were analysed. The results show that the classificatory features correlate with the perceived task difficulty of production and transcription. Implications for teaching are outlined.

Comparing spatial navigation in a virtual environment vs. an identical real environment across the adult lifespan

Virtual environments (VEs) are increasingly being used as a research platform for investigating human responses to environmental variables. While VEs provide tremendous advantages in terms of variable isolation and manipulation, and ease of data-collection, some researchers have expressed concerns about the ecological validity of VE-based findings; that is, their transferability to real-world contexts. In the current study we created a virtual replica of a real-world, multi-level educational facility, and compared data collected in the VE vs. the real-world environment as participants completed identical navigational tasks. We found significant differences in all of the measures used, including distance covered, number of mistakes made, time for task completion, spatial memory, extent of backtracking, observation of directional signs, perceived uncertainty levels, perceived cognitive workload, and perceived task difficulty. We also analyzed potential age-related effects to look for heightened VE/real-world response discrepancies among older adult participants (age 55 or over) compared to younger adults (18–30 years of age). This analysis yielded no significant age-by-condition interaction effects. Finally, we examined the spatial distribution of self-reported wayfinding uncertainty across the building floorplan, finding that areas in which uncertainty was most pronounced were similar between the real-world and VE settings. Overall, these findings indicate that while virtual reality can be a useful design research tool, caution is needed when interpreting and generalizing its results.

Telehealth in Informal Caregivers of Stroke Survivors: A Systematic Review.

Background: There has been an increase in people with disabilities who require continuous care, which often falls to informal carers (ICs). Stroke is one of the conditions where ICs are most needed. Therefore, it is necessary for ICs to improve their caregiving skills and self-care capacity. Telehealth (TH) can facilitate them. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the evidence of the effects of interventions on ICs of stroke patients. Methods: The search was conducted in Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, CINALH, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, and APA PsycInfo. Key search terms included "stroke", "informal caregiver" and "telemedicine". Only randomised clinical trials were included. Results: A total of 2031 articles were found in the databases, 476 were screened and 19 clinical trials met the eligibility criteria. Different TH programmes have evaluated many outcomes related to physical and emotional health. The TH tools included phone, videophone, web-based interventions, and social media. The most investigated outcome was depression; although contradictory results were found, the TH may have helped to prevent an increase in depressive symptoms. There were inconsistent results on the caregiving burden and the preparedness of the IC. However, TH has positive effects on the health of the ICs, reducing the number of unhealthy days, anxiety, task difficulty perception, and improving psychological health. Conclusions: TH may be a useful tool to improve the abilities and health of ICs of SS. No adverse effects have been reported. More quality studies evaluating the effects of telemedicine on the ICs of stroke survivors, as well as the most appropriate doses, are needed.

Seeing Eye to Eye? Comparing Faculty and Student Perceptions of Biomolecular Visualization Assessments

While visual literacy has been identified as a foundational skill in life science education, there are many challenges in teaching and assessing biomolecular visualization skills. Among these are the lack of consensus about what constitutes competence and limited understanding of student and instructor perceptions of visual literacy tasks. In this study, we administered a set of biomolecular visualization assessments, developed as part of the BioMolViz project, to both students and instructors at multiple institutions and compared their perceptions of task difficulty. We then analyzed our findings using a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative analysis was used to answer the following research questions: (1) Which assessment items exhibit statistically significant disparities or agreements in perceptions of difficulty between instructors and students? (2) Do these perceptions persist when controlling for race/ethnicity and gender? and (3) How does student perception of difficulty relate to performance? Qualitative analysis of open-ended comments was used to identify predominant themes related to visual problem solving. The results show that perceptions of difficulty significantly differ between students and instructors and that students’ performance is a significant predictor of their perception of difficulty. Overall, this study underscores the need to incorporate deliberate instruction in visualization into undergraduate life science curricula to improve student ability in this area. Accordingly, we offer recommendations to promote visual literacy skills in the classroom.

Design Suggestions for Digital Workflow Oriented Desktop VR Spaces

This paper presents an examination of design prin- ciples for 3D Virtual Reality (VR) environments, with a focus on enhancing digital workflows. Employing objective data, the study sets out to clarify the primary design considerations for crafting effective 3D VR spaces. Through empirical research, the authors conducted comparative analyses of task performance within both classical 2D Windows and in 3D VR environmental contexts, exploring users’ perceived difficulty levels alongside eye-tracking data. The findings reveal that, although 3D VR environments rich in distracting elements and demanding high navigational effort increase perceived task difficulty, these factors do not negatively impact overall performance or task completion time. Interestingly, eye-fixation duration results indicate that visual fixation in 3D VR falls within expected norms, whereas in 2D scenarios, fixation rates are significantly higher, more than doubling those observed in 3D settings. Drawing on these insights, the paper supports the design of 3D VR spaces that are simpler and intuitive, necessitating minimal navigation, thereby optimizing task performance efficiency.

A Proposed Three-Stage Postperformance-Routine Framework

Research has supported the use of preperformance routines to successfully manage the period preceding sport performance. In contrast, little research has been done on the period succeeding skill execution. This article introduces a three-stage model for postperformance routines (PoPR) for novice motor learning and performance including emotion regulation, performance analysis and correction, and continuation to the next performance trial. To test this model, 38 novice golfers completed a putting task after random assignment to either a PoPR or a control condition. Putting performance was measured after each putt, and self-efficacy, arousal, affect, and perceived task difficulty were recorded every 10 putts. Participants in the PoPR group improved their performance from baseline to postintervention (d = −0.55), while performance in the control group remained unchanged (d = −0.01). No significant differences were observed for performance consistency, emotions, self-efficacy, and perceived task difficulty. Thus, practitioners implementing a PoPR in novice athletes may consider the proposed three-stage framework for improvements in motor learning and performance.