Pepper Spray Research Articles

1559 Effect of rumen-protected Capsicum oleoresin on immune responses in lactating dairy cows experimentally challenged with lipopolysaccharide

1559 Effect of rumen-protected Capsicum oleoresin on immune responses in lactating dairy cows experimentally challenged with lipopolysaccharide

1570 A blend of cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and capsicum oleoresin improves milking performance in lactating dairy cows

1570 A blend of cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and capsicum oleoresin improves milking performance in lactating dairy cows

STUDIES OF OLEORESINS AS PENETRATION ENHANCER FOR TRANSDERMAL PATCH OF KETOPROFEN

The study deals wit h the effect of oleoresins (nutmeg, capsicum, coriander and garlic) as penet rat ion enhancer for t ransdermal pat ch of ketoprofen. The t ransdermal patch prepared by mercury subst rate technique and evaluated. I n vit ro release was found t o be more than 60% through rat skin and 70% through cellophane membrane in capsicum oleoresin. In vivo study indicated that capsicum had 80.56 edema inhibit ions and t ransdermal patch without penet rat ion enhancer had 65.84 edema inhibit ions. This indicated that the formulat ion containing oleoresin capsicum had high % edema inhibit ion. The more skin permeability and greatest flux of ketoprofen was obtained significantly by capsicum oleoresin. From Overall study, it can be concluded that to deliver the drug through the skin, penetration enhancer play a vital role. So to deliver the drug into systemic circulation at predetermined rate by transdermal therapeutic system of Ketoprofen, using natural oleoresins as penetration enhancer. In nutshell the oleoresins like Oleoresin nutmeg, Oleoresin capsicum, Oleoresin garlic, Oleoresin coriander shows penet rabilit y and drug wit h maximum flux. Amongst this oleoresin capsaicin shows bet ter performance as penetration enhancer.

Oleoresins from Capsicum spp.: Extraction Methods and Bioactivity

Capsicum spp. fruit is one of the most produced vegetables around the world, and it is consumed both as fresh vegetable and as a spice like a food additive for their characteristic red color and, in many cases, its pungency. In addition to its economic importance, the bioactivity of some important compounds such as capsaicinoids and carotenoids has promoted its research. The use of Capsicum oleoresins has been increased due to its advantages comparing with the traditional dry spice. These include obtaining higher quality products with the desired content of bioactive and flavored substances. The wide diversity of extraction methods including water extraction, organic solvent extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and ultrasound assisted extraction as well as supercritical fluid extraction among others are discussed in the present review. Moreover, pretreatments such as chemical treatments, osmotic dehydration, sun and oven drying, and freeze-drying commonly used before the extraction are also presented. Due to its importance, Capsicum oleoresins produced with “green” solvents and the improvement of fractional extraction techniques that allow to obtain separately the various bioactive fractions will continue under research for further development.

Almost Democratic

The Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong (2014) read like a living tale of David and Goliath. Peaceful demonstrators held flimsy umbrellas to defend themselves against tear gas, pepper spray, and police batons. While many observers applauded the spontaneity of the citywide protests, little attention has been paid to the involvement of the Christian church in the prodemocracy struggle. This article draws on field observations and media reports to examine the various societal networks, resources, and mechanisms that Christian and non-Christian actors employed for grassroots mobilization. The crux of discussion is the political and theological polarization of the church, as the Umbrella protest revealed a qualitative shift in the attitude of local Catholics and Protestants toward political awakening and civic engagement. Such findings throw light on the intersection of faith and politics in Hong Kong’s continuous struggle for democratic governance.

Phytochemicals in Capsicum oleoresin from different varieties of hot chilli peppers with their antidiabetic and antioxidant activities due to some phenolic compounds

Due to its wide use in nutritional therapy, a capsicum oleoresin extraction from hot chilli pepper was optimized using ultrasound assisted extraction. Under optimal conditions, a 0.1g sample in 10mL of a 20% water in methanol solution was extracted at 50°C for 20min to remove phytochemicals consisting of oleoresin, phenolics, carotenoids, flavonoids, capsaicinoids (pungency level), reducing sugars. Antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of the crude extracts from 14 chilli pepper varieties were examined. The antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of some phenolic compounds were also tested individually. The results showed that these chilli pepper samples are a rich source of phytochemicals with antioxidant and antidiabetic activities. High antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazolin-6-sulfonic acid) and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power assays. The crude extracts had a lower level of sugars induced by the inhibitory effect of α-amylase activity. Thus, their enzymatic inhibitory effect might have resulted from a synergism among the phytochemicals concerned. Therefore, a diet with this type of food may have beneficial health effects.

Oleoresin Capsicum Spray and TASERs

In the last few decades, several less lethal forms of force have been introduced, adopted, and deployed by police agencies. Oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray is now used in nearly every department across the United States; the Thomas A. Swift Electric Rifle (TASER) is used in the majority of police departments. Despite their widespread use, we still know relatively little about the factors associated with the use of OC spray and TASERs and the effectiveness of these weapons in incapacitating subjects. Knowing when these weapons are used and whether they are effective would provide for a more complete understanding of their strengths and limitations and inform the debate about where less lethal weapons should be placed on use of force continua. This article contributes to the discussion by analyzing 504 use-of-force incidents where the police used OC spray or TASERs during the event. Data were obtained from a large municipal police department on incidents that occurred in 2010 and 2011. Policy considerations and directions for further research are discussed.

Security Personnel Practices and Policies in U.S. Hospitals: Findings From a National Survey.

Concerns of violence in hospitals warrant examination of current hospital security practices. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from members of a health care security and safety association to examine the type of personnel serving as security in hospitals, their policies and practices related to training and weapon/restraint tool carrying/use, and the broader context in which security personnel work to maintain staff and patient safety, with an emphasis on workplace violence prevention and mitigation. Data pertaining to 340 hospitals suggest security personnel were typically non-sworn officers directly employed (72%) by hospitals. Available tools included handcuffs (96%), batons (56%), oleoresin capsicum products (e.g., pepper spray; 52%), hand guns (52%), conducted electrical weapons (e.g., TASERs®; 47%), and K9 units (12%). Current workplace violence prevention policy components, as well as recommendations to improve hospital security practices, aligned with Occupational Safety and Health Administration guidelines. Comprehensive efforts to address the safety and effectiveness of hospital security personnel should consider security personnel's relationships with other hospital work groups and hospitals' focus on patients' safety and satisfaction.

Tear gas: an epidemiological and mechanistic reassessment.

Deployments of tear gas and pepper spray have rapidly increased worldwide. Large amounts of tear gas have been used in densely populated cities, including Cairo, Istanbul, Rio de Janeiro, Manama (Bahrain), and Hong Kong. In the United States, tear gas was used extensively during recent riots in Ferguson, Missouri. Whereas tear gas deployment systems have rapidly improved—with aerial drone systems tested and requested by law enforcement—epidemiological and mechanistic research have lagged behind and have received little attention. Case studies and recent epidemiological studies revealed that tear gas agents can cause lung, cutaneous, and ocular injuries, with individuals affected by chronic morbidities at high risk for complications. Mechanistic studies identified the ion channels TRPV1 and TRPA1 as targets of capsaicin in pepper spray, and of the tear gas agents chloroacetophenone, CS, and CR. TRPV1 and TRPA1 localize to pain‐sensing peripheral sensory neurons and have been linked to acute and chronic pain, cough, asthma, lung injury, dermatitis, itch, and neurodegeneration. In animal models, transient receptor potential inhibitors show promising effects as potential countermeasures against tear gas injuries. On the basis of the available data, a reassessment of the health risks of tear gas exposures in the civilian population is advised, and development of new countermeasures is proposed.

Report: Criminalising peaceful assembly: South Korea sentences trade union leader

INTERNATIONAL union rights Page 28 Volume 23 Issue 2 2016 from 8 to 18 months under the same charges. The judicial harassment of trade unionists since the November 2015 rally is the latest step in a long campaign against unions. As we reported last year in IUR 221, the repression of trade union rights in South Korea has reached new heights in recent years. The current government has taken this hostility to a new level, attempting to crack down on trade union activity by a combination of branding strikes illegal, imprisoning trade union leaders, and even suing unions for vast amounts of money. In response to strike action by the Korean Railway Workers’ Union (KRWU) to oppose rail privatisation, around 5000 riot police raided KCTU offices in December 2013, searching for KRWU leaders. Hundreds of KCTU staff were arrested. Later in 2014, some 138 KRWU leaders were charged, and huge compensation claims against the union were made (amounting to over EUR 47 million for seven strikes). The scale of these attacks on unions is driven in no small part by the dominance of the country’s ‘Chaebol’ or conglomerates, whose privileged status is a legacy of South Korea’s economic growth and development strategies. On 12 July 2016, unions joined with civil society groups and opposition parties to demand reforms to address the family-owned conglomerates’ abuse of power. Choi Jong-jin, acting leader of the KCTU, noted that, ‘since the 1997 financial crises, wealth inequality has widened in tandem with the Korean economy’s deepening reliance on chaebol’. Calling for reforms, Choi said that the Chaebol system ‘worsens inequality and destroys labour unions’1 . The General Secretary of the ITUC, Sharan Burrow, responded to the harsh sentencing of the KCTU President, stating: ‘This criminalisation of legitimate protest is totally unacceptable, and reinforces the power of Korea’s Chaebol industrial conglomerates which already dominate the economy. President Park Geun-hye’s governing party already lost its parliamentary majority in the elections in April, but she seems determined to continue to allow business to call the shots regardless of the harm caused to working people. The sentencing of Han Sang-gyun shows that the courts are subjugated to the political agenda of a government that has no majority, rather than standing up for the rule of law. The international trade union movement will continue to press for his release and the withdrawal of all the charges against those facing court proceedings for simply standing up for workers’ rights and other fundamental freedoms’2 . Notes 1 Korea Herald, ‘Opposition parties, civic groups allign to reform chaebol’, 12 July 2016. Available here: http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20160712000799 2 ITUC, ‘Korea: Imprisonment of KCTU President a Travesty of Justice’, 4 July 2016. Available here: http://www.ituc-csi.org/ korea-imprisonment-of-kctu The sentencing of Han Sang-gyun shows that the courts are subjugated to the political agenda of a government that has no majority, rather than standing up for the rule of law O n 4 July 2016, Han Sang-gyun, the President of the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions (KCTU), was sentenced to five years in prison by the Seoul Central District Court, for the crime of ‘obstruction’. This constitutes the harshest sentence for a rally organiser in South Korea’s post-democratisation history. The prosecution against Han stemmed from a series of legitimate protest assemblies in 2015, including a rally against proposed labour law reforms held on 14 November 2015 in Seoul in which 100,000 demonstrators participated. The protesters were met with 20,000 police officers from 248 squadrons, armed with 19 water cannons , 679 buses, and 580 capsicum spray devices. According to reports of the November demonstration , police fired water cannons and tear gas directly at peaceful protesters. In the ensuing violence it is understood that dozens were injured, including one protestor (Baek Nam-gi) who was struck by the jet of a water cannon and remains unconscious seven months later. Criminal procedures were launched against 585 KCTU leaders and members, but no investigation has been opened into the violent actions of the police. Han’s sentencing has provoked widespread national and international condemnation. The...

Chemical crowd control agents.

Chemical crowd control agents are also referred to as riot control agents and are mainly used by civil authorities and government agencies to curtail civil disobedience gatherings or processions by large crowds. Common riot control agents used to disperse large numbers of individuals into smaller, less destructive, and more easily controllable numbers include chloroacetophenone, chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile, dibenzoxazepine, diphenylaminearsine, and oleoresin capsicum. In this paper, we discuss the emergency medical care needed by sufferers of acute chemical agent contamination and raise important issues concerning toxicology, safety and health.

Clinicopathological effects of pepper (oleoresin capsicum) spray.

Pepper (oleoresin capsicum) spray is one of the most common riot-control measures used today. Although not lethal, exposure of pepper spray can cause injury to different organ systems. This review aimed to summarise the major clinicopathological effects of pepper spray in humans. MEDLINE, EMBASE database, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were used to search for terms associated with the clinicopathological effects of pepper spray in humans and those describing the pathophysiology of capsaicin. A phone interview with two individuals recently exposed to pepper spray was also conducted to establish clinical symptoms. Major key words used for the MEDLINE search were "pepper spray", "OC spray", "oleoresin capsicum"; and other key words as "riot control agents", "capsaicin", and "capsaicinoid". We then combined the key words "capsaicin" and "capsaicinoid" with the major key words to narrow down the number of articles. A search with other databases including EMBASE and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews was also conducted with the above phrases to identify any additional related articles. All article searches were confined to human study. The bibliography of articles was screened for additional relevant studies including non-indexed reports, and information from these was also recorded. Non-English articles were included in the search. Fifteen articles were considered relevant. Oleoresin capsicum causes almost instantaneous irritative symptoms to the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. Dermatological effects include a burning sensation, erythema, and hyperalgesia. Ophthalmic effects involve blepharospasm, conjunctivitis, peri-orbital oedema, and corneal pathology. Following inhalation, a stinging or burning sensation can be felt in the nose with sore throat, chest tightness, or dyspnoea. The major pathophysiology is neurogenic inflammation caused by capsaicinoid in the pepper spray. There is no antidote for oleoresin capsicum. Treatment consists of thorough decontamination, symptom-directed supportive measures, and early detection and treatment of systemic toxicity. Decontamination should be carefully carried out to avoid contamination of the surrounding skin and clothing. Pepper (oleoresin capsicum) spray is an effective riot-control agent and does not cause life-threatening clinical effects in the majority of exposed individuals. Early decontamination minimises the irritant effects.

Pepper Spray Cop and the American Dream: Using Synecdoche and Metaphor to Unlock Internet Memes’ Visual Political Rhetoric

Social media are increasingly important in protest movements for communication and organization. As such, scholars should consider these ephemeral messages as a tool for understanding such movements’ rhetoric. This article draws on Kjeldsen’s method for the critique of visual political rhetoric and adds consideration of intertextuality, synecdoche, and metaphor to demonstrate a method for the rhetorical analysis and a critique of Internet memes as visual, political rhetoric. The Pepper Spray Cop meme arising from Occupy Wall Street is presented as a case-study example. The article considers the centrality of the intertextual nature of memes as a unique form of visual rhetoric in activist contexts and contributes to the literature on user-generated and activist rhetoric.

The Woman in Cell 47

The Woman in Cell 47 Catherine La Fleur (bio) Noise is the first thing you notice in Duval Pre-trial Detention Facility. It’s a dull roar filled with the chatter of women’s voices, dry shuffling of flip flops sliding across the floor, and shrill voices of officers hammering out orders through the intercom. I lived here for three years waiting for trial. I hardly notice her when she comes into the dormitory because there are too many just like her. All I remember is a bedraggled figure slumping off to cell 47. Tee-tee and I engage in the only exercise allowed, walking in endless circuits around the dorm. We play the Better or Worse game. Tee-tee goes first. What would be better, an ice cream or a cold Coke? I claim ice cream, defending my choice with description of childhood summer days spent licking Mickey Mouse Ice Cream Bars. What would be worse, sunburn or mosquito bites? Tee-tee and I go back and forth like this for hours. Over two years, we’ve learned a lot about each other. The most important rule inside is to be as quiet as possible. There is no TV and no radio, no magazines or newspapers, no books. So being quiet is impossible. Inmates can’t stop talking. Everyone is too nervous and too frightened of the future. In turn, this causes the officers to scream and lock us in our cells for being too loud. There is always noise of one kind or another until late in the night. The lights are turned off at eleven. Shrieking jolts me awake. No idea what time it is, I just know it is late. A woman’s voice is calling for her mother then pleading with God begging for help. Screaming, screaming, screaming. Sounds of vomiting. The smell of blood and shit is pungent. Other women are already at their doors, faces pressed against the safety glass that makes up the cell walls. “What you see?” Tee-tee calls from her cell next to mine. I peer down and can just make out the edge of the door to cell 47. Sounds of violent retching and heaving continue, then the dull thump of a body hitting the combination sink and toilet. I bend down and yell through the slot in the steel and glass door. “Think it’s cell 47, sounds like she’s in trouble!” [End Page 78] Tee-tee bangs a fist against her door; other women start banging and shouting. One emits a high piercing scream that reverberates around the dorm. Thudding begins as cell 32 beats her hands against the hollow combination sink toilet in her own cell. The rhythm sounds like war drums. Abrupt white light floods the dorm and Captain storms through the door to the day room carrying a bull horn. Four officers follow, two clutching Black Jesus, immense canisters of pepper spray filled with chemicals that burn the eyes and skin. Captain depresses the siren button and screams into the mike. “Shut up, bitches!” The officers stride up to the lower tier of cells aiming the nozzles towards the slots in the doors. Slowly our cries die down. Captain waits until we are silent then announces through the horn that we are keeping the men on the other floors awake. “Those men have to work every day, unlike you whores lying around up here.” Tee-tee call out, “Sir, cell 47, sound like she sick real bad, maybe dyin.” Captain purses his lips a moment. “You women need to go to sleep. Medical knows all about cell 47.” A collective hiss from us fills the air. Cell 35 shouts, “You killing that girl!” Captain is suddenly pelted with paper balls, empty sanitary pad boxes, toilet paper rolls and items of clothing. He ducks and dodges as if they could actually hurt him, then steps back, out of range. The siren blasts again. “I’m gonna say this one time only, you don’t quiet down, I’m gonna take away your phone. Keep on and we’ll take the water. You’ll be on lock down, any of you want shit or...

Use of Evaporative Water Cooling (EWC) in grinding chili

Size reduction is one of the steps in processes where the raw materials are converted into final products. When considering spices, size reduction must be performed carefully because of the loss of aroma due to temperature increase during milling. These problems are encountered with conventional grinding of chili. Therefore, grinding under reduced temperature by means of water vapor was tested as a novel application. A pin mill with 5hp motor was used to grind chili with water mixing during milling in which water is considered as the coolant. The temperature of the conventionally ground and evaporative water cooled ground chili were 58 ± 2.65 0C and 36 ± 1.5 0C respectively and the corresponding amounts of heat removed by water vapor were 29.33 kJ and 186.50 kJ. The moisture content of conventionally ground chili and evaporative water cooled ground chili with water spraying were 9.06 ± 0.41 and 9.65 ± 0.23 percent on wet basis and the corresponding color values were 49.19 ± 0.99 (L*), 17.35 ± 1.62 (a*), 23.38 ± 1.29 (b*) and 47.52 ± 1.74 (L*), 18.38 ± 0.14 (a*), 26.93 ± 0.68 (b*). Retention of capsicum oleoresin in two grinding methods; conventional and EWC are 0.0217± 1.27 and 0.0129 ± 1.00 mg/ml respectively. The results proved that the use of water vapor is applicable as the coolant in size reduction confirming reducing temperature rise during grinding, controlling the color weakening after grinding, preferable final moisture content with higher oleoresin retention than that of conventional grinding.

Effects of dietary Capsicum oleoresin on productivity and immune responses in lactating dairy cows

This study investigated the effect of Capsicum oleoresin in granular form (CAP) on nutrient digestibility, immune responses, oxidative stress markers, blood chemistry, rumen fermentation, rumen bacterial populations, and productivity of lactating dairy cows. Eight multiparous Holstein cows, including 3 ruminally cannulated, were used in a replicated 4×4 Latin square design experiment. Experimental periods were 25 d in duration, including a 14-d adaptation and an 11-d data collection and sampling period. Treatments included control (no CAP) and daily supplementation of 250, 500, or 1,000 mg of CAP/cow. Dry matter intake was not affected by CAP (average 27.0±0.64 kg/d), but milk yield tended to quadratically increase with CAP supplementation (50.3 to 51.9±0.86 kg/d). Capsicum oleoresin quadratically increased energy-corrected milk yield, but had no effect on milk fat concentration. Rumen fermentation variables, apparent total-tract digestibility of nutrients, and N excretion in feces and urine were not affected by CAP. Blood serum β-hydroxybutyrate was quadratically increased by CAP, whereas the concentration of nonesterified fatty acids was similar among treatments. Rumen populations of Bacteroidales, Prevotella, and Roseburia decreased and Butyrivibrio increased quadratically with CAP supplementation. T cell phenotypes were not affected by treatment. Mean fluorescence intensity for phagocytic activity of neutrophils tended to be quadratically increased by CAP. Numbers of neutrophils and eosinophils and the ratio of neutrophils to lymphocytes in peripheral blood linearly increased with increasing CAP. Oxidative stress markers were not affected by CAP. Overall, in the conditions of this experiment, CAP did not affect feed intake, rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, T cell phenotypes, and oxidative stress markers. However, energy-corrected milk yield was quadratically increased by CAP, possibly as a result of enhanced mobilization of body fat reserves. In addition, CAP increased neutrophil activity and immune cells related to acute phase immune response.

Brief Mental Skills Training Improves Memory and Performance in High Stress Police Cadet Training

Psychological performance training has been shown to mitigate the negative effects of stress for police officers. We contributed to this body of evidence using techniques in breathing, mental performance imagery, and attentional focus. One group (experimental) of police academy cadets was trained in these techniques to deal with the stressful event of being sprayed with oleoresin capsicum (OC). Their physiological and behavioral responses to the event were compared to a control group of cadets. The results showed the experimental group demonstrated significantly better memory recall of salient aspects of the OC spray event and that cadets from both groups using controlled breathing during the event scored significantly higher in memory recall. Several trends were found that further suggested the effectiveness of psychological performance training. While heart rate increased from baseline to pre-OC and post-OC measures across groups, there were no group differences at these time points. Our findings add to the growing body of literature on psychological skill training effects on tactical performance and are notable for results of enhanced performance occurring with relatively brief training in the psychological techniques. Because of the ecological design, the findings should generalize to other high stress encounters in policing.

Repelling elephants with a chilli pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013

Repelling elephants with a chilli pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013

Growth performance and endogenous losses of broilers fed wheat-based diets with and without essential oils and xylanase supplementation

An experiment was conducted to compare the effect of a supplementary mixture of essential oils, with and without exogenous xylanase, on performance, carcass composition, dietary nitrogen (N)–corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn), dry matter retention (DMR), N retention (NR), fat digestibility (FD) coefficients, and endogenous mucin losses (measured as sialic acid, SA) when fed to broiler chickens.Three hundred male Ross 308 broilers in total were reared in floor pens from 0 to 21 d of age. Birds were fed 1 of 3 wheat-based diets: basal diet (215 g/kg CP, 12.12 MJ/kg AME) with either no additive (control diet; C) or 100 g/tonne of a standardized combination of 5% carvacrol, 3% cinnamaldehyde, and 2% capsicum oleoresin (diet XT); or a combination of XT and commercial xylanase enzyme at a rate of 100 g of XT and 2,000 units (U) of xylanase/kg (diet XYL), respectively. Each diet was randomly allocated to 10 pens with 10 birds.Feeding XT and XYL diets improved birds’ growth performance (P < 0.05). Birds fed XT and XYL diets had an improved caloric conversion ratio (P < 0.05) and consumed 1.3 MJ less AMEn per kilogram of growth compared to birds fed the control diet only. Feeding XT improved only the dietary FD coefficient (P < 0.05) compared to control-fed birds, but the dietary FD coefficient did not differ for XYL diet (P > 0.05). Birds fed XYL diet excreted 35% less endogenous mucin compared to control-fed birds (P < 0.05). Birds fed XT alone gained more carcass protein than the control-fed birds (P < 0.05) but did not differ from the birds fed XYL diet (P > 0.05). There was no indication of a negative interaction between dietary essential oils and xylanase.

Armed Victims: The Ego Function of Second Amendment Rhetoric

On June 10, 2014, Emilio Hoffman was shot and killed in a gym locker room and a teacher was wounded in a Troutdale, Oregon school. The shooter killed himself after a shootout with police. Two days earlier, a couple shot two police officers at point blank range in a restaurant, covered one of them with a Gadsden flag and a swastika, and then later killed an armed civilian who tried to stop them in a Walmart. They died by their own hands. On June 5, 2014, a gunman at Seattle Pacific University shot one student and injured two others before being stopped with pepper spray and disarmed by a student. This came on the heels of another shooting in May in Isla Vista, California, where a man stabbed his three roommates to death, shot and killed three others, and injured 13 others—eight by gunshot and four by hitting them with his car. He died by his own hand. Similar incidents have received widespread attention: Newtown, Connecticut; Virginia Tech; and Fort Hood stand out in recent memory because of their coverage by the mass media. However, these events represent only a small fraction of gun violence in the United States. The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence reports that “on average, 32 Americans are murdered with guns every day and 140 are treated for a gun assault in an emergency room.” As was the case in the killings at ThurstonHigh School, ColumbineHigh School, and Virginia Tech, many expected stronger gun control legislation