Penal Clause Research Articles

CONSENSUAL TERMS MODIFYING CONTRACTUAL LIABILITY IN THE LIGHT OF UAE LAW: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH FRENCH LAW

Background: In the context of UAE law, this study explores the legitimacy and application of terms that modify contractual liability, drawing a comparative analysis with French law. Contractual terms are essential in shaping agreements, reflecting the parties' expectations and strategies for managing future risks. Since the 19th century, these terms have evolved significantly due to industrial growth and an increase in civil liability disputes. They are designed to limit or exclude a party's liability in the event of a contract breach, offering a mechanism for risk management and economic cost estimation. The paper differentiates between terms that directly address liability and those pertaining to the initiation of liability lawsuits. It examines various clauses, including guarantee clauses, terms that reduce liability, and penal clauses that establish fixed compensation amounts to incentivise contract performance. Additionally, contemporary legal frameworks, including both French and UAE laws, increasingly impose restrictions on contractual freedom to protect vulnerable parties, such as consumers and employees, by prohibiting certain terms and granting judges the authority to invalidate unfair clauses. The study analyses UAE legal texts in comparison with French jurisprudence to clarify the UAE legislator's perspective on the legitimacy of terms. Methods: This study aims to conduct a comparative analysis of Emirati and French laws on modifying contractual liability by analysing primary and secondary sources such as legal texts, judicial decisions, and commentaries. It examines legislative approaches and judicial interpretations, aiming to identify similarities, differences, and areas for UAE legal reform. Inductive reasoning is used to derive broader principles, assessing the effectiveness and fairness of both legal frameworks and considering key differences and guiding principles. Results and conclusions: To define the parties' rights and responsibilities, the parties must agree upon clear and explicit terms that define the damage scope, compensation limits, and exceptions to the contract. Even though these terms are common and regulated, the courts play a significant role in interpreting them, posing legal challenges when unclear. In the UAE, the Civil Transactions Law permits such terms under contractual freedom but lacks clarity on their legality, leaving judicial discretion under Article 206. Other UAE laws explicitly invalidate these terms, aligning with international standards. Post-2016, French law also invalidates terms that remove essential obligations. It is recommended that the UAE legislator clarify its stance on these terms within civil transactions, aligning with other UAE laws, to clearly specify what conditions are acceptable.

Retaining Chinese Indentured Labour in Interwar British and French Pacific colonies

ABSTRACT British attempts to reform or close down the indentured labour system as it applied to Chinese labourers across the British empire were carried out on an ad hoc basis, one colony at a time. In the southwest Pacific islands indentured labour recruitment was retained into the 1930s and beyond. Between 1920 and 1953 thousands of Chinese workers suffered under penal clauses for labour offences and endured harsh conditions on contracts that often extended beyond five years. This article investigates the means by which colonial authorities in Hong Kong and the southwest Pacific were able to maintain the indentured labour system despite the British Colonial Office preference for abolition. It compares government correspondence, labour contracts and ordinances from Nauru under British-Australian mandate, Western Samoa under New Zealand mandate, and the Anglo-French Condominium of New Hebrides (Vanuatu). It demonstrates that Chinese indentured labourers were retained with only minor changes to their contracts, put in place for the most part so that colonial administrators could avoid national and international censure.

The Limits of Recompense in the Contractual Liability in Jordanian Civil Law

Objective: In the initial portion, the researcher examined the notion of the contract as a foundation for contractual liability, elucidating the principle of the parties' intention and the position of the Jordanian Civil Law on it, as well as the prerequisites and fundamental elements of contractual liability. Theoretical Framework: In the second segment, I examined the evaluation of compensation in contractual liability through the employment of penalty clauses, as well as the legal characteristics of penalty clauses according to Jordanian Civil Law. The third segment examined the boundaries of compensation in contractual liability, specifically addressing the scope of damages in the initial claim and the criteria for determining damages in a subsequent claim. According to Article 363 of the Jordanian Civil Law, in cases of contractual liability, the debtor is responsible for compensating only the direct damages that were reasonably foreseeable at the time of contracting. However, if the debtor has committed fraud or a serious error, they may be held liable for additional damages. Method: the researcher has dealt with these concerns by referring to Articles 360-364 of the Jordanian Civil Law, which establish that a contract is regarded as a legal agreement between the parties involved, determining its enforceability. Results and Discussion: In the conclusion, I presented a comprehensive overview of the research, which covered the topics of contractual liability in Jordanian Civil Law, the definition and types of compensation, judicial interpretations regarding the extent of compensation, and important findings and recommendations for Jordanian lawmakers to take into account. Research Implications: That all legislation considers damages as a prerequisite for the accrual of compensation in contractual liability. However, it is argued that compensation under contractual liability should not be awarded on the basis of the damage caused to the debtor. The relationship between the parties is contractual, and the right to compensation arises for the breach of this relationship without waiting for any damage incurred by the debtor, and the Jordanian civil code, in Article 364, grants the judge the authority to amend the penal clause by increasing or decreasing it, therefore he is not bound by the principle of the will of the parties. It should be noted that the Jordanian civil code, in Article 363, limits compensation to direct damages that were foreseen only at the time of the conclusion of the contract, without specifying the criterion that the court uses in assessing whether the damage was foreseen or unforeseen. Originality/Value: This research focused on the extent of compensation in contractual liability.

TİCARET ŞİRKETLERİNDE SERMAYE BORCUNUN İFASI TALEPLİ DAVALARIN DAVA ŞARTI ARABULUCULUK AÇISINDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

6325 s. Hukuk Uyuşmazlıkları Arabuluculuk Kanunu hükümlerine göre, özel hukuk temelli olan ve tarafların üzerinde serbestçe tasarruf edebildikleri iş ve işlemlerden doğan uyuşmazlıklar arabuluculuk müessesesinin çalıştırılması suretiyle bir çözüme kavuşturulabilir. Kanunun 18A maddesine göre ise, ilgili kanunlarda arabulucuya başvurulmuş olması dava şartı olarak kabul edilmiş ise arabuluculuk sürecine başvurulması zorunludur. 6102 s. Türk Ticaret Kanunu’na eklenen 5A maddesi gereğince, Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nun 4 üncü maddesinde ve diğer kanunlarda belirtilen ticari davalardan, konusu bir miktar paranın ödenmesi olan alacak ve tazminat talepleri hakkında dava açılmadan önce arabulucuya başvurulmuş olması dava şartıdır. Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nun 127, 128, 129 ve 482 nci maddelerinde, şahıs veya sermaye şirketlerinde, taahhüt edilen sermayenin getirilmemesi halinde, şirket veya şirket ortakları, borcun ifasını, temerrüt faizinin ödenmesini, varsa zararın tazmin edilmesini, kararlaştırılmış ise cezai şartın ödenmesini ve son olarak - sermaye şirketlerinde - ıskat müessesesinin çalıştırılmasını talep edebilirler. Sermayenin getirilmemesi sonucu ileri sürülen bu talepler neticesinde ortaya çıkan uyuşmazlıkların, dava şartı arabuluculuk kapsamı içerisinde olup olmadığının tartışılması gerekmektedir.

2. Legal and Social Review of Child Marriage in Pakistan: A Judicial Perspective

Child marriage in Pakistan is associated with social, economic, and juridical aspects rather than mere religion. It is an exception to general Islamic law for the best interests of the child. The determination of the legal age of marriage for a child is discussed, but no efficient steps are taken in Pakistan. Marriage is still regulated by an old ambiguous colonial law. Furthermore, penal amendments are introduced with zero implementation. Although child marriage is covered by penal clauses, the courts recognise such marital contracts. Recently, FST (Federal Shariat Court) and IHC (Islamabad High Court) discussed this matter in detail and equalised child marriage as a crime clearly. These courts confirmed the determination of the legal age for marriage according to sharia. Moreover, several contemporary legal principles of Islamic jurisprudence are stressed on this issue. It is highlighted to examine child marriage in the context of social and public interest. The research at hand will review child marriage in the juridical context of the courts. It will denote the social aspects of this issue. This article will analyse the latest judgments of FST and IHC.

The Industrial Relations of In Place of Strife (1969): The Search for Sanctions through the Prism of Key Industrial Disputes

The 1969 White Paper In Place of Strife was the Labour government’s response to the 1968 Donovan Report. Its most contested proposals were three penal clauses, where fines could be imposed: against unions for refusing to ballot in certain official strikes or if they struck against a ruling in inter-union recognition disputes; and against workers for refusing to return to work when a ‘conciliation pause’ was ordered in certain unconstitutional strikes (in breach of a disputes procedure). Peter Dorey’s political account Comrades in Conflict (2019) provides an opportunity to explore the industrial relations aspects of the White Paper. First, the proposed sanctions are explored in an analysis of the Donovan Report and government discussions. Second, key industrial disputes, which shaped the White Paper and the decision to present an interim bill, are examined. Third, the impracticability of fines on unconstitutional strikers prompted the exploration of legislative alternatives. The opposition of the Trades Union Congress is assessed.

LİMİTED ŞİRKET PAY DEVİR SÖZLEŞMESİNDEKİ CEZA KOŞULUNUN TENKİSİ

Türk Borçlar Kanunu'nun 182’nci maddesinin 3’üncü fıkrasına göre hâkim, aşırı ceza koşulunu resen indirir. Bununla birlikte Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nun 22’nci maddesine göre tacirin ceza koşulunun tenkisini talep etmesi mümkün değildir. Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nun 22’nci maddesinin uygulama alanı bulabilmesi için; borçlunun tacir sıfatına sahip olması ve borcun tacirin ticari işletmesi ile ilgili olması gerekir. Türk Ticaret Kanunu hükümlerine göre tacir sıfatının tespiti tartışmalı bir konu değildir. Bu noktada esas mesele, limited şirket pay devir sözleşmesinin, tarafların ticarî işletmesi ile ilgili olup olmadığıdır. Bu çalışmada, limited şirket pay devir sözleşmesinin tacirin ticarî iş sahası ile ilgili olup olmadığı gerçek kişi tacirler, tüzel kişi tacirler ve hâkim teşebbüs açısından ayrı ayrı değerlendirilmektedir.

A Cláusula Penal nos Contratos de Incorporação Imobiliária

A regulamentação da resilição unilateral do contrato de compra e venda de imóveis submetido ao regime de incorporação imobiliária, realizada pela Lei nº 13.786 de 27 de Dezembro de 2018, não afasta o dever do judiciário de controlar a proporcionalidade da cláusula penal, mesmo que submetida aos limites contidos no novo diploma legal. O presente trabalho procura oferecer ferramentas para que tal controle seja feito de maneira objetiva, através da decomposição analítica dos elementos que compõem as perdas ordinariamente advindas de tal modalidade de extinção contratual e atribuindo a elas peso de 20% sobre a totalidade da cláusula penal. Objetiva-se, com isso, fornecer critérios para tomada de decisão que ofereça padrões mais claros, evitando-se subjetivismo e decisões contraditórias.

형벌 규정의 전체 현황, 법정형의 수준 및 균형성 분석 - 30년간의 전체 형벌 규정에 대한 텍스트 분석을 이용하여 -

본 연구는 1985년 5월부터 2016년 5월까지 31년간의 전체 법률의 형벌 규정 변화를 텍스트 데이터 구축 및 자동화된 형벌 규정 식별방법으로 분석했다. 분석 결과 동 기간 동안 형벌 규정이 자유형은 연평균 2.3%, 벌금형은 연평균 2.8% 증가했고, 500만 원 이하의 벌금형을 제외한 모든 형량 수준에서 형벌 규정이 늘어난 것을 발견했다. 다만, 자유형의 평균 형량 수준은 떨어지고 있는 것을 발견했는데, 이는 형량이 가벼운 형벌 규정이 무거운 형벌규정보다 상대적으로 더 빨리 증가함에 따른 착시효과로 나타났다. 분야별로는 보건·복지 및 환경 분야에서 형벌 규정이 빠르게 증가했고, 여성·청소년 성보호, 건설 및 지식재산권 분야에서 법정형의 상향이 두드러졌다. 이러한 형벌 규정 변화는 여론 대응적 입법에 따른 경우도 있었으나, 새로운 규제 수요에 대한 대응으로 나타난 경우도 있었다. 자유형과 벌금형 비율의 규정 간 균형성은 2012년까지 계속 악화되다가, 19대 국회의 법정형정비사업 추진 후 개선된 것으로 나타났다. 또한 19대 국회 말 기준으로 자유형 1년당 평균 벌금액은 957만 원으로, 법정형정비사업의‘1년당 1천만 원’의 목표가 평균적으로는 달성된 것으로 보인다. 다만, 징역 1년 대비 벌금을 최고 1억 원까지 설정하는 불균형 벌금형 입법례가 늘어나고 있어 주의가 필요하다. 형벌 규정의 적정한 범위와 수준에 대한 실증연구 및 정책적 논의를 통해 죄형법정주의를 입법 단계에서부터 회복하는 방안을 고민할 필요가 있다.

Aplicabilidad de las cláusulas excepcionales en los contratos y convenios interadministrativos

Las cláusulas excepcionales fueron creadas para que la administración ejerciera su poder exorbitante frente a los particulares que coadyuvan al cumplimiento de los fines del Estado. Esas potestades de interpretación unilateral del contrato, modificación unilateral del contrato, terminación del contrato, reversión, multas, declaratoria de incumplimiento y cláusula penal, la misma Ley 80 de 1993 ha señalado que no podrán ser aplicadas en algunas tipologías de contrato dentro de los que se encuentra el Contrato Interadministrativo. Ahora bien, si las dos formas que tiene el Estado para materializar sus fines son a través de la prestación del servicio y la contratación estatal, el interés público o interés general se convierte en el bien jurídico a proteger por parte del Estado en cualquiera de los negocios jurídicos que decida celebrar ¿por qué no es aplicable en los negocios jurídicos celebrados entre entidades públicas?

Legenda sunt gesta ad sanandas animas: leyes, juicios y actas para la correctio de los Donatistas en Agustín de Hipona

The Donatist crisis forced Augustine to modulate his vision on religious coercion under the influence of changing circumstances. On the one hand, he partook in the appeal for imperial laws to repress Donatus’ partisans. On the other, after the edict of union of 405 and the conference of Carthage of 411, he had to intercede with the civil authorities to moderate the enforcement of the harsh penal clauses prescribed by the laws and he recommended the publication of judicial records (gesta) which contained the confessions of the Donatists as an alternative to the death penalty. Both proposals may have been linked. This paper mainly focuses on Augustine’s epistles 133, 134 and 139 and examines the historical and legislative context where his intercessio before the tribunus et notarius Flavius Marcellinus and the proconsul Africae Apringius took place in 411-412. The article also explores the function of the publication of the judicial protocol as documental evidence of the error and guilt of circumcelliones and Donatists.

The Kildare Rebellion and the Early Henrician Reformation

In the 1530s, Henry VIII and Thomas Cromwell carried out fundamental changes in the Tudor state. These changes amounted to a revolution in which three elements may be distinguished: the erection of the commonwealth into a sovereign empire, the king's divorce of Catherine of Aragon, and important alterations to the nature and structure of the English church. Because of the fundamental nature of the issues involved and the threat to the established order, the revolution very soon provoked widespread discontent among all sections of society. Nevertheless, opposition was spasmodic and uncoordinated, with each group of conspirators relying on another to rise, and all looking to the emperor, Charles V, to rectify the evils which, it was thought, the king's policies had brought about. Lack of effective leadership and failure to agree about what constituted the major grievances enabled the government to deal with the dissidents one by one. Cromwell was allowed to use parliament to ratify the government's programme and to manipulate public opinion. By constant vigilance and an intelligent use of the constraints placed on the populace by the penal clauses in the statutes, he secured the observance of the more unpopular measures. In spite of the overall success of this policy, the difficulties were many, and the final outcome always in doubt. Its enforcement was thus ‘a political task of some magnitude’ for the government. Probably the most determined challenge to the revolution was presented in Ireland, where rebellion broke out in June 1534.

Penal Clauses in Labour Relations Legislation: The Case of the British Industrial Relations Act, 1971-74

The British Industrial Relations Act of 1971 attempted to curb strike action and thus to reduce an accelerating rate of wage-inflation. Its penal clauses included provisions for the legal enforceability of collective agreements; allowed for compulsory strike ballots and cooling-off periods in "national emergency" disputes; and rendered unlawful a number of "unfair industrial practices". The failure of the Act stemmed from the unwillingness of employers to initiate litigation under it, and the inability of the courts to decide whether its penal clauses were to be invoked against trade unions or against shop stewards. The experiment proved completely unsuccessful, and the repeal of the Act in 1974 swept away nearly all its penal provisions.

Penalties, Liquidated Damages and Penal Clauses in Commercial Contracts: A Comparative Study of English and Continental Law

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The Problem of Introducing Modern Systems of Wage Payment into the Boot and Shoe Industry

THIS Paper is based on the experience I have had in seeking to introduce work study, or operational research, into the Boot and Shoe Industry. It may have a wider significance but in writing this Paper I am fully conscious of a pull in opposite directions. The record of the Shoe Industry in the field of industrial negotiation and arbitration has been so outstanding that the first impulse is summarily to reject any new idea which appears to threaten it, and yet one is all the time conscious that either well tried principles of labour relations must go or they must conform to modern trends or techniques by a change of emphasis. In 1895 there was a dispute in the shoe industry and the outcome was a document called the 'Terms of Settlement'.' Many of its details are not important today or relevant to our discussion, but that document laid down, in broad and general terms, a procedure and machinery which is acted upon and which is the main reason why no national stoppage has occurred in the past 56 years. Under these terms a Trust Fund was created, contributed to equally by Union and Manufacturers' Federation, and in the event of a strike or lockout, either side can claim against the Fund. If a dispute should occur, or a lockout, three days' grace is allowed to either side before an action for compensation can be commenced. This penal clause only accords with justice, because quite adequate machinery was created under the Terms of Settlement which rendered it unnecessary, in that Arbitration Boards were created for every district in which the craft was practised. The Terms of Settlement govern the constitution of these Arbitration Boards, to which all disputed matters are referred which cannot be settled in the factory or by the local trade union officials. More generally, the industry operates under a National Agreement between the Union and the Federation, negotiated every two years, and which fixes basic rates and conditions of work, and disputed matters very often have to 'do with an interpretation of that

The Lusitania.

Treaties — Interpretation — Various Rules of — Rule against Interpreting what has no Need of Interpretation.Treaties — Interpretation of — Various Rules of — Clear Provisions not Requiring Interpretation — Construction Conforming to International Law Preferred — Penal Clauses.

"CHRISTIAN SCIENCE" AND MICHIGAN LAW.

The following are the chief points of an opinion of Attorney-General Oren of Michigan, given in reply to a question as to the legal status of "Christian Science" healers and their duty as regards reporting of dangerous communicable diseases under the Michigan law. The act as amended requires reports to the health officer, and in its penal clause declares that every physician and person acting as a physician, who shall refuse or neglect to immediately give such notice shall forfeit for each such offense a sum not less than $10 nor more than $50. "It is plain," says the attorney-general, "from the wording of the above section of the act, that it applies to either physicians as such, or persons acting as physicians." The question whether a "Christian Science" healer is thus included is taken up, and he finds that the term "physician" is only applicable to one lawfully certified

The Proposed Amendment of the Penal Clauses of the Medical Act

The Proposed Amendment of the Penal Clauses of the Medical Act

The Proposed Amendment of the Penal Clauses of the Medical Acts: Report for the Parliamentary Bills Committee of the British Medical Association

The Proposed Amendment of the Penal Clauses of the Medical Acts: Report for the Parliamentary Bills Committee of the British Medical Association