Ingestion Of Pellets Research Articles

Prevalence of imbedded and ingested shot gun pellets in breeding sea ducks in the Baltic Sea—possible implications for future conservation efforts

Several sea duck species in Europe face dwindling population numbers with following increased conservation focus. Shot gun practices may put extra pressure on populations not only by direct hunting mortality but also crippling and lead poisoning from ingestion of pellets. In this study, we examined three sea duck species breeding in the Swedish Archipelago of the Baltic Sea by x-raying trapped incubating females to detect prevalence of imbedded and ingested shot gun pellets. The study was carried out during the 2021 and 2022 breeding seasons and designed to aid our understanding of the role of physical restraints of putative pellets to breeding performance at our study site. A total of 205 individual females of common eider (n = 113), velvet scoter (n = 57), and red-breasted merganser (n = 35) were x-rayed without finding any imbedded or ingested pellets. For this study, a combination of decreasing hunting pressure, remoteness of study site, improved hunters’ shooting performance along the flyway and depletion of crippling rates due to life-long negative effects of carrying imbedded pellets may explain our finding on non-detection. For common eider, specific interventions to reduce the negative impacts of shotgun practices have been reported successful, and our data suggest a continuing positive trend. Based on our findings, we advise future conservation efforts for the three species, breeding in this part of the flyway, to focus on other factors that may have negative impact on incubating female survival and reproduction.

Risk of Expanded Polystyrene Ingestion by Climbing Perch Anabas testudineus

The climbing perch Anabas testudineus is widespread in the inland waters of Vietnam and according to its ecology could have contact with floating plastic waste. Fragments of expanded polystyrene (EPS) are detected in the fresh waters of Vietnam in Khanh Hoa, Lam Dong, and Phu Yen provinces. Our study focused on estimating the probability of ingestion of EPS pellets (size 2.5–3.5 mm) by adult climbing perch. In the experiments, 3 types of treatment pellets were offered to fish: 24 feed pellets (Fps), 24 expanded polystyrene pellets (Pps), and 12 feed and 12 expanded polystyrene pellets (FPps). Fish grasping time of the first pellet was independent in all treatment types. The grasping time of the 12th pellet was insignificant in Fps (63 s) and Pps (75 s). Climbing perch grasped and ingested the 24th Fp significantly (p = 0.02) earlier (143 s), than they grasped the 24th Pp (817 s). Fish with FPp treatment grasped feed along with EPS pellets, but grasping the 12th Fp was significantly (p = 0.02) earlier (49 s) than the 12th Pp (193 s). By the end of the tests, the fish had ingested all feed pellets. We discovered that climbing perch grasped Pps and kept them in the oral cavity, but rejected them in 100% of the cases. This result provided evidence that climbing perch have an effective defense mechanism for avoiding ingestion of expanded polystyrene pellets with a size of 2.5–3.5 mm.

Description and evaluation of cocaine body-packers management in French Guiana (2016–2019)

IntroductionFrench Guiana is a hub for drugs trafficking between South America and Europe. In Corpore transport, or Body-packing, is one of the options favored. In 2018, 577 people were arrested for smuggling cocaine from French Guiana to mainland France. The objective of this study was to update the epidemiological data and to evaluate the overall management of body-packers. MethodsA monocentric retrospective and observational study included patients admitted to the emergency department of the Cayenne General Hospital from January 1st, 2016 to December 31st, 2019 after ingestion of cocaine pellets. ResultsDuring the period, 668 people were referred to Cayenne hospital's emergency department by for suspected body-packing. Two hundred nineteen were excluded due to the absence of cocaine pellets in the initial X-ray or because they were carrying cannabis pellets. The mean age was 25.2 years with a sex ratio of 2.21 males per female. Among them, 13.7% of cases were complicated without endangering the vital prognosis. The mean number of pellets was similar between the population with and without complications (respectively 54.1 [50.9–57.4] and 57.8 [48.9–66.6], p = 0.22). The presence of cocaine in the urine was not significantly associated with the risk of complications (OR = 0.5, [95%CI = 0.1–1.8], p = 0.23). Compared to the CT-scanner which has the highest diagnostic accuracy (Se 100%, Sp 94%), the sensitivity of the Abdominal X-ray was 44%. ConclusionThis study showed that complications were rare, most of which were digestive stagnation requiring endoscopy. Given the low rate of complications and their low severity the average duration of hospitalization was relatively short. The type 3, micro-industrial quality packaging, almost exclusively used in body-packing in French Guiana, seems to be the main factor in this reduction of complications. This observation suggests possible adaptations of the current protocol for body-packers monitoring.

Feeding habits and the influence of pellet diameter on the feeding responses of the flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) in captivity

The feeding habits and effect of the diameter of pelleted feeds on the feeding responses of wild juvenile and adult flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) in captivity were examined. Optimal pellet size for feeding was defined according to the behavioural responses and ingestion of pellets with different diameters (2, 4, 6, 8 mm) that were dropped into the tank in a random sequence. Larger pellets (6 and 8 mm) were more attractive (lower reaction time, high percentage of capture), but the small to medium-sized pellets (2 and 4 mm) were consumed the most. The optimal size was the 2- and 4-mm pellet diameter for juvenile individuals (365.50 ± 36.90 g; 28.8 ± 0.84 cm) and the 4-mm diameter pellet for adults (937.49 ± 146.54 g; 40 ± 1.12 cm). The preferred feeding area of adult mullet was also studied to estimate preference in relation to pellet characteristics such as floating or sink. Two pellet types, floating or sinking, were offered simultaneously in the water column: at the surface, mid-water column and bottom of the tank. The flathead grey mullet had a preference to feed in the mid-water column and the bottom of the tanks indicating that sinking or slow-sinking pellets would be the optimal feed type in relation to mullet feeding behaviour.

Safety of daily administration of pellets containing parasiticidal fungal spores over a long period of time in heifers

ABSTRACT The innocuousness of the prolonged ingestion of commercial nutritional pellets containing spores of the fungal species Mucor circinelloides and Duddingtonia flagrans on grazing dairy heifers was tested. During two years, one group (G-F) received daily 2.5 kg pellets with 3 × 105 spores each fungus / kg pellet, and group G-C without them. In the third year, ruminants in both groups received spore-free feed. Evaluation of red and white blood cell parameters (RBC and WBC, respectively) was performed monthly. Alterations on the digestive activity, respiratory function and reproductive functionality were also recorded. Three heifers of G-F were necropsied in the second year of study and four in the third. Samples collected from different tissues and organs were preserved in 10% neutral buffered formalin, sections included in paraffin and stained with haematoxylin/eosin, periodic acid Schiff, Fontana–Masson and Ziehl–Neelsen. During the first two years, normal numbers of RBC and WBC were recorded in G-F, by values of RBC and haemoglobin (HB) below physiological standards in G-C. No differences between the two groups were obtained in the third year, with RBC and HB levels lower than normal (physiological). No fungal structures or lesions related to fungal administration were visualised in the tissues of G-F. It is concluded that the daily ingestion of pellets containing spores of the parasiticidal fungi M. circinelloides and D. flagrans over a long period of time is completely safe.

Plant Tannins and Essential Oils Have an Additive Deterrent Effect on Diet Choice by Kangaroos

Tannins and essential oils are well recognised as antiherbivore compounds. We investigated the relative effectiveness of the polyphenol, tannin, and the essential oils, 1,8-cineole and pine oil, as feeding deterrents against western grey kangaroos. Both groups of secondary metabolites are naturally abundant in many Australian plants. These three metabolite groups were incorporated separately or together into standard pellets for presentation to kangaroos, and their behaviour (sequence of food choice and feeding time) and amounts consumed were observed. The control (with no secondary metabolites) was much preferred. There was a sharp reduction in the ingestion of pellets containing tannins, 1,8-cineole or pine oil. Combinations of the metabolites resulted in almost no consumption. In association with tannin, pellets containing either 1,8-cineole or pine oil were as effective deterrents as both combined. There was a strong correlation between time spent feeding on the different diets and the amount of food consumed, although the rate of intake was markedly slower when secondary metabolites were present. Behavioural observations showed that the amount of food ingested is initially guided by the presence/absence of essential oils, apparently detected by smell, and later by the presence/absence of tannins, by taste. Both groups of secondary metabolites work in concert by stimulating different senses that minimise herbivory by marsupials, such as the western grey kangaroo, and help to explain their abundance in the Australian flora.

Shotgun pellet ingestion: two cases unique to the Northern Territory.

Shotgun pellet ingestion: two cases unique to the Northern Territory.

Obstrução intestinal associada a tricobezoares de grande volume – um relato de caso

Objetivo: Relatar um caso de obstrução intestinal causada por massa formada a partir da ingesta de pelos Relato do caso: Trata- se de paciente do sexo feminino, 15 anos, procura o serviço de Pronto Socorro com relato de constipação intestinal há 15 dias, sem comorbidades conhecidas até o momento. Após lavagem intestinal com clister glicerinado, foi avaliada com melhora e alta no mesmo dia. Após 24 horas, evoluiu com vômitos fecalóides, distensão abdominal e febre não aferida. Após estabilização hemodinâmica, foi realizada tomografia computadorizada de abdômen, evidenciando sinais de obstrução intestinal sem fator obstrutivo evidente. Foi indicada laparotomia exploradora para melhor avaliação e tratamento do caso. Discussão: Tricobezoares são causas raras na população em geral, mas em populações específicas, como adolescentes do sexo feminino por exemplo, tendem a ser mais comuns. Não obstante, apenas o tratamento cirúrgico não é suficiente no tratamento, devendo a mesma ser encaminhada aos serviços de assistência social, psicologia e psiquiatria, para evitar novos casos e complicações.

The lateral preoptic area and ventral pallidum embolden behavior

While recently completing a study of the effects of stimulating the lateral preoptic area (LPO) and ventral pallidum (VP) on locomotion and other movements, we also noticed LPO and VP effects on motivational drive and threat tolerance. Here, we have investigated these latter effects by testing conditioned place preference (CPP), behavior on the elevated plus maze (EPM) and the willingness of sated rats to occupy a harshly lit open field center to acquire sweet pellets, a measure of threat tolerance, following infusions of vehicle or bicuculline (bic) into the LPO and VP. LPO-bic infusions robustly increased total locomotion, and, in direct proportion, occupancy of both the harshly lit field center and open arms of the EPM. LPO bic also generated CPP, but did not increase sweet pellet ingestion. These effects were attenuated by dopamine D1 and D2 receptor antagonists, whether given individually or as a cocktail and systemically or infused bilaterally into the nucleus accumbens. VP-bic infusions did not increase total locomotion, but preferentially increased field center occupancy. VP-bic-infused rats compulsively ingested sweet pellets and did so even under the spotlight, whereas harsh illumination suppressed pellet ingestion in the control groups. VP bic produced CPP and increased open arm occupancy on the EPM. These effects were attenuated by pretreatment with dopamine receptor antagonists given systemically or as bilateral infusions into the VP, except for % distance in the field center (by D1 or D2 antagonists) and pellet ingestion (by D1 antagonist). Thus, boldness generated in association with LPO activation is tightly tied to locomotor activation and, as is locomotion itself, strongly DA dependent, whereas that accompanying stimulation of the VP is independent of locomotor activation and, at least in part, DA signaling. Furthermore, respective emboldened behaviors elicited from neither LPO nor VP could clearly be attributed to goal pursuit. Rather, emboldening of behavior seems more to be a fixed action response not fundamentally different than previously for reported locomotion, pivoting, backing, gnawing, and eating elicited by basal forebrain stimulation.

Ultrastructural study of liver and lead tissue concentrations in young mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) after ingestion of single lead shot

ABSTRACTLead (Pb) represents a serious threat to wildlife and ecosystems. The aim of this study was to examine the subcellular effects of dietary Pb pellet ingestion on mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) livers. After ingestion of a single Pb shot (LS4 size class: 0.177 ± 0.03 g) in 41 mallard ducks (22 males and 19 females) versus 10 controls (5 males and 5 females), all 7-week old, a morphologic study was conducted by TEM (transmission electron microscopy) of liver at the subcellular level. The results in treated mallards showed at a magnification of 2500 X that hepatic parenchyma was altered as evidenced by intralysosomal electron-dense deposits, which are compatible with Pb deposits. Further, at a higher magnification (15,000 X) in both genders, deterioration of mitochondria was observed in which the crests and, to a lesser extent, outer membrane were lysed. While the rough endoplasmic reticulum was fragmented, intracytoplasmic electron-dense material compatible with Pb deposits was maximally visible, thereby underscoring the deeply destructive effect of this metal on the subcellular architecture of the liver. In addition, applying an optimized and validated method in a clean room using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometer (ETAAS) with Zeeman background correction, the objective was to improve and refine certain indispensable measurements pertaining to Pb impregnation in tissues other than liver such as kidneys, bones, and feathers of mallards. Data demonstrated show that compared with controls, Pb accumulation increases significantly, not only in the liver (3-fold), but also in the bones and the feathers (14-fold). No significant difference was noted between males and females. Bearing in mind the marked subcellular toxicity attributed to Pb, this study reinforces present-day arguments advocating limitation of game consumption.

Successful management of zinc phosphide poisoning: possible benefit of virgin olive oil

Metal phosphides in general and zinc phosphide in particular are potent insecticides and rodenticides. These are commercially used for protection of crops during storage, as well as during transportation. However, these are highly toxic substances. Zinc phosphide (Zn2P3) and other phosphides are generally misused intentionally for suicidal purpose in Turkey. While most fatal PH3 exposures are unintentional, metal phosphide pellet ingestion has been used intentionally as a means of suicide in several Asian countries and in Europe. Once ingested, zinc phosphide is decomposed into highly toxic phosphine gas by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid content of the stomach. Phosphine acts as a respiratory poison. Even 20:100,000 part of phosphine in air is reported to fatal. Their detrimental effects may range from nausea and headache to renal failure and death. Its poisoning has a high mortality and recent years have seen an increase in the number of poisoning cases and deaths caused by suicidal ingestion. In episodes of metal phosphide poisoning, the treatment depends on route of exposure. We aimed to present an intentionally ingested Zn2P3 of 15 g patient on suicide purpose and our therapy with oraly NaHCO3, activated charcoal and virgin olive oil. In our case, we used repeated doses of virgin olive oil to induce antioxidant activity beside the recommended therapy reqimen. Interestingly, the patient presented only mild symptoms of toxicity such as transient metabolic acidosis and hepatic dysfunction.

Effects of Lead Exposure on Sperm Quality and Reproductive Success in an Avian Model.

Lead (Pb) poisoning via ingestion of shot pellets is a frequent cause of death in wild birds and also has a wide range of subclinical effects. Here we report on the sublethal effects Pb exposure has on the breeding performance of red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). We studied the effects of Pb exposure on sperm quality, reproductive success, egg properties, laying performance, antioxidant levels, and carotenoid-based coloration. Birds were exposed by oral gavage to one or three No. 6 Pb shot pellets (2.8 mm in diameter, mean mass ± SD: 109 ± 7.97 mg). We show that exposure to three pellets (330 mg) reduced the hatching rate of females and decreased the acrosome integrity and sperm motility of males. In addition, females exposed to 1 pellet (110 mg) produced heavier eggs and chicks, whereas males exposed to 1 pellet presented an increase in sperm vigor. Sperm viability, concentration, progressiveness or fecundation rate were not affected by Pb treatment. Pb exposure increased circulating antioxidant levels in males, whereas the percentage of carotenoid-pigmented eye-ring area decreased in exposed females. Several sperm parameters showed positive relationships with coloration and antioxidant levels, suggesting that males displaying redder ornaments may be more capable of protecting sperm from oxidative stress in the event of sublethal Pb exposure.

Are we eating plastic-ingesting fish?

Yes, we are eating plastic-ingesting fish. A baseline assessment of plastic pellet ingestion by two species of important edible fish caught along the eastern coast of Brazil is described. The rate of plastic ingestion by king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) was quite high (62.5%), followed by the Brazilian sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon lalandii, 33%). From 2 to 6 plastic resin pellets were encountered in the stomachs of each fish, with sizes of from 1 to 5 mm, and with colors ranging from clear to white and yellowish. Ecological and health-related implications are discussed and the potential for transferring these materials through the food-chain are addressed. Further research will be needed of other species harvested for human consumption.

Ingestion of food pellets containing Escherichia coli overexpressing the heat-shock protein DnaK protects Penaeus vannamei (Boone) against Vibrio harveyi (Baumann) infection.

Feeding aquatic animals with bacterial encapsulated heat-shock proteins (Hsps) is potentially a new method to combat vibriosis, an important disease affecting aquatic animals used in aquaculture. Food pellets comprised of shrimp and containing Escherichia coli overexpressing either DnaK-DnaJ-GrpE, the prokaryotic equivalents of Hsp70-Hsp40-Hsp20, or only DnaK were fed to juveniles of the white leg shrimp Penaeus vannamei, and protection against pathogenic Vibrio harveyi was determined. Maintaining pellets at different temperatures for varying lengths of time reduced the number of live adhering E. coli, as did contact with sea water, demonstrating that storage and immersion adversely affected bacterial survival and attachment to pellets. Feeding P. vannamei with E. coli did not compromise their survival, indicating that the bacteria were not pathogenic to shrimp. Feeding P. vannamei with pellets containing bacteria overproducing DnaK (approximately 60 cells g(-1) pellets) boosted P. vannamei survival twofold against V. harveyi, suggesting that DnaK plays a role in Vibrio tolerance. Pellets containing DnaK were effective in providing protection to P. vannamei for up to 2 weeks before loss of viability and that DnaK encapsulated by these bacteria enhanced shrimp resistance against Vibrio infection.

Liver Lead Levels in Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens) in a Wetland near the City of Durango, Mexico

The use of lead in ammunition for hunting exposes waterfowl to lead poisoning (plumbism) by accidental consumption of shotgun pellets. To test this hypothesis we sampled 18 liver tissue samples of Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens) collected during the 2012-2013 hunting season in a wetland near the city of Durango, Mexico. We quantified liver lead levels using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer and portions of liver were fixed and stained for their histological study. Average lead concentration (in dry weight) were under the normal range (mean = 0.73 ± 0.2, standard error) which do not represent any risk of poisoning. Liver tissue injuries were not observed in the histopathological analysis, suggesting no reaction to a xenobiotic agent such as lead. Gastrointestinal content analysis showed lead pellet in the gizzard of one individual, but we could not find a relationship between pellet ingestion and lead concentration in the liver. Although the results did not provide evidences of lethal or sublethal effects caused by lead poisoning, they show a possible risk due to the presence of lead pellets in the digestive tract.

Intoxicación por munición de plomo en aves silvestres en España y medidas para reducir el riesgo

Mateo, R. Vallverdu-Coll, N., Ortiz-Santaliestra, M.E. (2013). Poisoning by ingestion of lead ammunition in wild birds in Spain and measures taken to reduce this risk. Ecosistemas 22(2):61-67. Doi.: 10.7818/ECOS.2013.22-2.10 Poisoning by ingestion of lead ammunition in wild birds is known in Spain since the end of the last century. High densities of lead shot in various internationally important wetlands produce pellet ingestion rates close to 70% in species such as the northern pintail ( Anas acuta ) and lead poisoning becomes a major cause of mortality of the endangered white-headed duck ( Oxyura leucocephala ). Lead poisoning has also been described in several species of birds of prey, mainly scavengers. The contamination of game meat has also been studied, because in Spain it is usually cooked with vinegar, increasing the transfer of lead from ammunition to meat. For now, the only action taken to reduce the risk of exposure to lead from ammunition in birds and humans has been the banning since 2001 of lead shot in protected wetlands. Here, we review the studies carried out in Spain on lead contamination caused by the ammunition and the effect of the measures taken to reduce this risk.

LESIONES ANÁTOMO-PATOLÓGICAS EN CUYES INTOXICADOS EXPERIMENTALMENTE CON Pteridium aquilinum COMO MODELO ANIMAL PARA BOVINOS CON HEMATURIA VESICAL ENZOÓTICA BOVINA.

The study describes the development of pathological lesions in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) experimentally intoxicated through the ingestion of pellets containing one third of Pteridium aquilinum and two thirds of concentrate during 135 days. The guinea pig was used as a experimental model for cattle with Bovine Enzootic Haematuria (BEH). Twelve female animals with a mean of 400 g body weight were used. Two of them, selected at random, were slaughtered on days 30, 60, 90 and 120 days and the last 4 on day 135 of the trial. The lesions developed were neoplastic, inflammatory, degenerative and adaptation processes. Tumors mainly developed in the bladder, lung, intestine, spleen and lymph nodes. In the bladder, epithelial neoplasms (transitional cell carcinomas) and nonepithelial neoplasms (leiomyosarcoma and myxoma), together with inflammatory processes (chronic nonsuppurative cystitis) and vascular processes (telangiectasia and edema suburotelial) developed. In the lung, intestine, spleen and lymph nodes, most tumors were malignant lymphoma with inflammatory processes such as bronchopneumonia, enteritis and splenitis. Among the proliferative processes, racemose intestinal epithelial hyperplasia and lymphoid follicular hyperplasia in the intestine, spleen and lymph nodes were observed. Most of the processes including neoplasms were noted as of 30 days. It is concluded that guinea pig can be used as experimental animal model for bovine BEH as develops inflammatory lesions, degenerative, adaptation processes and similar neoplasms in the urinary bladder.

Quantification of melamine absorption, distribution to tissues, and excretion by sheep1

Eight Döhne Merino rams were used to quantify apparent absorption, distribution to tissues, and excretion of dietary melamine in sheep. Two batches of concentrate pellets were made; one (CON) contained corn gluten meal with no detectable melamine and the other (MEL) contained corn gluten meal that was previously found to be highly contaminated with melamine at 15,117 mg/kg. The MEL pellets contained 1,149 mg/kg of melamine. During a 10-d adaptation period, all the animals received a forage-based diet supplemented with 600 g/d of the CON pellets. This was followed by an 8-d collection period during which 6 of the animals received MEL pellets and 2 received CON pellets. Melamine intake of sheep that received MEL pellets was 0.69 g/d. Blood samples were taken before first ingestion of MEL pellets on d 1 and again on d 3, 6, and 8 of the collection period for melamine and serum creatinine analyses. Feces and urine were collected quantitatively over the 8 d for proximate and melamine analyses. All the animals were slaughtered at the end of the trial, and samples of the LM, liver, kidneys, and abdominal fat were taken for melamine analysis. Data of the 2 sheep that received CON pellets for the duration of the trial confirmed that no melamine was detected in any of the samples, and no statistical analyses were performed on these data. The apparent digestibility or efficiency of absorption of ingested melamine was 76.7%. Melamine was detected in the urine, blood, muscle (LM), and fat tissue of all the sheep that received MEL pellets. Serum melamine concentrations reached 5.4 mg/kg on d 8 of the collection period, and the meat (LM) contained 9.6 mg/kg of melamine. Calculations on the partitioning of ingested melamine suggested that urine is the major excretion route accounting for 53.2%, whereas feces accounted for 23.3% of ingested melamine. Approximately 3.5% of the ingested melamine was detected in muscle. It was concluded that ingested melamine is highly absorbable from the small intestine and that a pathway exists for the distribution of dietary melamine to meat.

Note: An original system to separately control litter and female feed intake without modification of the mother-young relations.

This paper describes an original system allowing separate control of the feed intake of the mother and of her litter without rearing them in separate cages, and thus without modifying young / mother relations. This system involved several modifications on tradilional wire cages. Firstly, the female's feeder was modified to prevent the ingestion of pellets by the suckling rabbits. Secondly, young had access to a specific feeder. Lastly, a wire mesh partition divided the cage in two areas, to avoid the doe having access to the young's feeder. Females need to be adapted to their new feeder at least two weeks befare the beginning of the control of feed intake. About 10% of the females did not adapt to this system while the others recovered their initial feed intake within one week. Neither the milk intake nor the growth of the suckling rabbits were modified by this system. Therefore, it allows independent feeding plans for females and litters.

Lead Poisoning and the Reintroduction of the California Condor in Northern Arizona

Since 1996, The Peregrine Fund has released California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) in the Grand Canyon region of northern Arizona with the goal of establishing a self-sustaining population, disjunct from other released populations in California and Baja California. A free-ranging population of more than 60 individuals now ranges within northern Arizona and southern Utah and has produced 9 wild young. The most frequent cause of death is lead poisoning from the ingestion of lead bullet fragments and shotgun pellets in the remains of gun-killed animals. In response, the Arizona Game and Fish Department has effectively reduced lead occurrence within the foraging range of the condors through hunter education and the promotion of nonlead ammunition. Most hunters have participated in the program. Throughout the course of the reintroduction effort, veterinary science and application have played essential roles in diagnosing fatalities and treating lead-exposed condors, a species with such a low natural reproductive rate that every adult is significant to the population.