Peacebuilding Processes Research Articles

Persistence of informal networks and liberal peace-building: evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Informal networks persist after conflict and undermine liberal peace-building. While these adverse effects are well-known, how informal networks survive beyond conflict is less understood. Scholars explain informal networks’ persistence by their stability and cohesion, attributed to solidarity of ascriptive bonds such as ethnic ties. In these accounts, networks are approached as actors and not as relational structures. We address this gap in the peace-building scholarship and conduct a longitudinal study of relations within an informal network in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Drawing on the political approach to networks, and applying Social Network Analysis, we investigate actors’ relational power and reveal how network actors use their connections to create strategic coalitions and opportunistic collaborations enabling them to exploit different stages of the peace-building process. We demonstrate that unequal distribution of relational power creates vested interests in sustaining the network and in seeking access to it, and how dynamic reconstitution of relational power within the network ensures continuity of network action from war to peace. From a policy perspective, this structural account of informal network persistence suggests a need for a better understanding of the dynamics among co-ethnics within an informal network that allows network members to subvert efforts to counter informality and undermines post-conflict institution-building.

Peacebuilding Functions of International Environmental Governance

This article seeks to focus on ‘peacebuilding’ as a construct of peace among groups that have previously been in conflict. This calls for moving beyond peacemaking and conflict resolution to consider the longer-term efforts at establishing sustainable peace. Notwithstanding the longstanding efforts of UNEP’s Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch, there has been very limited development of international normative and institutional structures targeting the process of post-conflict sustainable peacebuilding. The article considers how far the current international environmental governance (IEG) regimes are responsive to the specific challenges to post-conflict situations. It seeks to briefly consider four key characteristics of IEG regimes: (i) Ad- hoc and subject specific; (ii) Incremental and facilitative; (iii) Degree of reciprocity; and (iv) Science-based.

Relational Processes in Ayahuasca Groups of Palestinians and Israelis.

Psychedelics are used in many group contexts. However, most phenomenological research on psychedelics is focused on personal experiences. This paper presents a phenomenological investigation centered on intersubjective and intercultural relational processes, exploring how an intercultural context affects both the group and individual process. Through 31 in-depth interviews, ceremonies in which Palestinians and Israelis drink ayahuasca together have been investigated. The overarching question guiding this inquiry was how psychedelics might contribute to processes of peacebuilding, and in particular how an intercultural context, embedded in a protracted conflict, would affect the group’s psychedelic process in a relational sense. Analysis of the interviews was based on grounded theory. Three relational themes about multilocal participatory events which occurred during ayahuasca rituals have emerged from the interviews: 1) Unity-Based Connection – collective events in which a feeling of unity and ‘oneness’ is experienced, whereby participants related to each other based upon a sense of shared humanity, and other social identities seemed to dissolve (such as national and religious identities). 2) Recognition and Difference-Based Connection – events where a strong connection was made to the other culture. These events occurred through the expression of the other culture or religion through music or prayers, which resulted in feelings of awe and reverence 3) Conflict-related revelations – events where participants revisited personal or historical traumatic elements related to the conflict, usually through visions. These events were triggered by the presence of ‘the Other,’ and there was a political undertone in those personal visions. This inquiry has revealed that psychedelic ceremonies have the potential to contribute to peacebuilding. This can happen not just by ‘dissolution of identities,’ but also by providing a space in which shared spiritual experiences can emerge from intercultural and interfaith exchanges. Furthermore, in many cases, personal revelations were related to the larger political reality and the history of the conflict. Such processes can elucidate the relationship between personal psychological mental states and the larger sociopolitical context.

Sustaining peace through better resource governance: Three potential mechanisms for environmental peacebuilding

For international and domestic actors, post-conflict peacebuilding is one of the most difficult policy arenas to understand and in which to operate. Environmental and natural resource governance have the potential to facilitate peacebuilding in such contexts, but existing research has not yet produced a cohesive theoretical understanding of the pathways by which natural resource management strategies can facilitate positive peace. This paper explores the wider benefits of natural resource management and discusses their potential for reducing political fragility in affected states and helping to build positive peace. The paper outlines three mechanisms through which improved natural resource governance in post-conflict contexts is theorized to have positive effects on peace: (a) the contact hypothesis, whereby the facilitation of intergroup cooperation reduces bias and prejudice; (b) the diffusion of transnational norms, where the introduction of environmental and other good governance norms supports human empowerment and strengthens civil society; and (c) state service provision, where the provision of access to public services addresses the instrumental needs of communities, thereby strengthening their belief in the state. Guided by an interest in the opportunities presented by natural resource management to support peacebuilding processes in post-conflict states, the paper seeks to revise and advance the current environmental peacebuilding research agenda.

The Interplay Between ‘Peacetime’ Law and the Law of Armed Conflict: Consequences for Post-Conflict Peacebuilding

Abstract Focussing on the interplay between rules of international law applicable in peacetime and rules applicable during armed conflicts, this contribution examines the impact on the jus post bellum. In this context certain specific legal obligations are discussed to answer the question whether and if so, how their application post-conflict may be affected by the peacebuilding process after the (former) armed conflict. Essential norms of the protection of victims during armed conflicts continue to be relevant for peace operations and post-conflict peacebuilding. This includes guiding principles and effective measures of control for operational detentions; law enforcement operations to secure the security and safety of peacekeepers; the protection of the environment and efforts to strengthen the role of States and international organizations as well as their accountability in post-conflict reconstruction. The author demonstrates that jus post bellum requires due diligence during military operations, responsible planning and precautions. He submits that post-conflict peacebuilding should be characterized by pragmatic limitation, conciliation and participation of the parties. This suggests certain deviations from peacetime principles and rules, deviations that may include certain limits of protection which will, however, be balanced out by the temporary nature of peacebuilding measures. While such interplay between the different branches of international law remains subject to changing situations, a few general principles are considered to be relevant for the jus post bellum. Even if codification remains difficult, further case-oriented research is encouraged to confirm general principles and rules of this important branch of international law.

Gender Mainstreaming in Peacebuilding and Localised Human Security in the Context of the Darfur Genocide: An Africentric Rhetorical Analysis

Summary A wide body of scholarship has been developed on the Darfur crisis in Western Sudan which started in February 2003.1 Such scholarship includes various academic works by scholars such as Apiah-Mensah (2005, 2006), Deng (2007), Howell (1974), Mohamed (2007), Rankhumise (2006). Among other issues identified by these scholars and conflict resolution practitioners, was the need to establish a nexus between human security and development as a key in conceiving an understanding of human peace and security. The conflict in Darfur and its impact on human security and development also caught the attention of regional and international organisations, including the African Union (AU) and the United Nations (UN). It is on this basis that this article seeks to employ an Africentric perspective (also read as Afrocentricity) for the purpose of analysing the place of women during the Darfur peacebuilding process with a focus on the underlying factors that led to the marginalisation of women. Methodologically, this article is heavily dependent on conversations and interdisciplinary critical discourse analysis in its broadest form. Contrary to the official narrative, this article contests the notion that in the post-genocide era in Darfur authentic women voices have found expression in peace-building. The argument established in this article is that existing domestic and inter-national legal instruments have given a false sense in terms of women inclusion in the post-genocide political life of Darfur.

INFORMAL PEACE-BUILDING ENHANCERS: THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN COLONIAL UZAIRUE LAND, NIGERIA, 1897-1960

This paper examines the roles played by women in the maintenance and sustenance of a peaceful society through the development of informal socio-economic institutions in colonial Uzairue land. It notes that the roles played by women in this regard have not received adequate scholarly attention. It further explores a socio-political overview of colonial Uzairue land, women in Uzairue worldview, and gender (women) theories, stereotypes and roles in Uzairue land. It uses the qualitative historical method which is narrative, descriptive and analytical. The data used for this research were derived from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were derived from oral interviews through oral discussions and interactions (by this researcher), with selected interviewees during fieldwork in Uzairue land. The secondary data were obtained from relevant published materials including books and journal articles. This research examines the role of women in Uzairue land in the provision of a peaceful society, and the encouragement of socio-economic progress, through the provision of health care services, occupational and economic ventures. It views the concept of peace-building as efforts, techniques and approaches aimed at preventing conflicts, achieving durable peace, and stabilizing society politically and socio-economically. This study concludes that the instinctive roles of women as caregivers, comforters, peacemakers, and home keepers, and their respective participation and specialization in the provision of health care services, among other socio-economic ventures, undoubtedly encouraged the mutual and peaceful development of colonial Uzairue land. It demonstrates therefore that women are intrinsically linked with the peace-building process and overall development of society, and that they should be accorded high regards even in the contemporary period.

El Acuerdo de Paz para Colombia. Un singular mecanismo de consolidación de la paz

El Acuerdo de Paz en Colombia tiene como principal objetivo acabar con el conflicto en el país y se presenta como un singular mecanismo de consolidación de la paz. Sobre este Acuerdo descansan todas las medidas que se han adoptado para asegurar la paz en Colombia. El papel de las organizaciones internacionales es bastante marginal y su labor queda vinculada a lo que se dispone en el Acuerdo de Paz. En todo caso, Naciones Unidas ha querido contribuir a la paz en el país, aunque casi todo el protagonismo en la consolidación de la paz corresponde al Estado colombiano. La tarea de la organización internacional no sólo es meramente complementaria, sino que además queda estrechamente ligada a las decisiones del Estado colombiano. El Acuerdo de Paz se concibe como un instrumento que regula los componentes que resultan necesarios para hacer efectiva la consolidación de la paz en Colombia.

Democracy and State Formation Nexus: Experiences in Somaliland

ABSTRACT For democracy to be implemented, there should be a peaceful, functioning, and defined sustem of governance. Though scholars have different perspectives on the nexus between state formation and democracy, this article uses Somaliland as a case. Somaliland, a former British Protectorate and now de facto state in the Horn of Africa, has adopted a hybrid system of governance—traditional, religious, and modern democratic systems of governance. The democratization process in Somaliland started decades back. As per the literature reviewed, most of the researchers have studied the peace-building process and the state formation processes separately. They did not specifically investigate the nexus between democracy and state formation in Somaliland. To fill that gap, this article examines the experiences of Somaliland’s democratization process and its impact on state formation. It clarifies how a clan-based system of governance turned into a democratic multiparty system. The major findings of this article include that democracy has had a huge impact on Somaliland’s state formation process. Not only that, it contributed to the peace-building process as well. Above all, the people of Somaliland were keen on building trust among themselves with democratic principles during the state formation. The application of democracy has permitted Somaliland people the right of accountability where they can change the leaders by casting votes in elections. The characteristics and principles of democracy had emerged in Somaliland’s ruling systems even before it reclaimed its internationally fully recognized independence.

Fessenheim—Nuclear Power Plant for Peace

This paper explores the construction of a nuclear power facility at Fessenheim, Alsace, and its role in the remaking of French-German post-war relations and the consolidation of the post-war peacebuilding process. The siting and materiality of nuclear energy technology, I argue, was a key component of the top-down peace-building strategy that guided reconciliation processes at the national and regional levels. This study analyses archival documents, newspapers articles, interviews with Alsatian antinuclear activists and amateur films in order to reconstruct how the site for a joint nuclear power plant at Fessenheim was chosen and how it affected cross-border interactions. Although the planning of a French-German nuclear facility at Fessenheim embodied the appeasement that characterised post-war relations at a governmental level between the two nations, its construction had limited impact on the regional reconciliation processes. However, the site of the nuclear plant became central for reconciliation in ways that industry planners did not foresee: opposition to the nuclearization of the Upper Rhine Valley became the driving force for the cross-border reconciliation process. This grassroots mobilisation against the presence of nuclear technology formed the nexus for transcending the legacy of World War II through cooperation toward a common, anti-nuclear future.

Role of Military From Counter Insurgency to Peace Building: Paradigm Shift in the Sri Lankan Nation-Stateʼs Security

Historically, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) used to be considered as one of the more stable and secure countries in the South Asian region. In the years after independence it gradually dawned on the government that maintaining national security was a crucial and most challenging contemporary issue faced by the country. At the global level, the role of the Military was understood as being vital for ensuring the safety, security and dignity of the nation-state. And, when national security is threatened on any ground, the military is expected to play a key role in safeguarding it. However, after the military victory was won by defeating the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka in 2009 it was expected that a deep sense of peace and tranquility would be restored in the country. Contrary to this expectation, Sri Lankan national security was breached very badly, leadimg to an unstable situation as a result of a series of bomb blasts set off by certain extremist elements on the 21st of April 2019. In this backdrop, it would be a timely exercise to explore and analyze the Sri Lankan nation stateʼs security, peace building initiatives, and the role of the military. Taking this a step further, this study sought to analyze the role played by the military in the post-conflict peace building process as well. The study used qualitative methodology to conduct the investigation. Secondary data sources including books, articles and official reports were utilized to collect information for this study. This research found that in Sri Lanka the military was actively engaged in maintaining national security by using its soft and hard power as appropriate. This Study also found that lack of a coherent National Security Policy in Sri Lanka has been a key problem that needs to be addressed and corrected soon to ensure the safety and security of the country.

An ecological response to ethno-nationalistic populism: grassroots environmental peacebuilding in south Asia

Abstract The geopolitical and geophysical realities of south Asia create a deep sense of paradox. On the one hand, territorial disputes and hyper-nationalism have resulted in some of the most militarized borders in the world. South Asia's international boundaries are subject to a range of conflicts, which includes high-level armed confrontations between India and Pakistan and low-level, yet deadly, incidents at the India–Bangladesh border. On the other hand, the region's ecology is inherently interlinked through shared rivers, glaciers and forests. South Asia's borders therefore present unique opportunities for environmental peacebuilding, as they are the epicentre of political conflicts as well as the source of transnational ecological connections. This article argues that grassroots processes of environmental peacebuilding can be used to build societal resistance to the rise of ethno-nationalistic populism in south Asia. Using interview data, the article tests concepts on pathways to environmental peacebuilding against underlying drivers of regional conflicts. The study suggests ways by which grassroots environmental initiatives on the Sundarbans forest between India and Bangladesh and the Thar desert between India and Pakistan can address the contemporary rise in nativist politics. The article contributes to existing literature by connecting theories on pathways to environmental peacebuilding to the ideational drivers of territorial and political conflicts. It adds to policy discussions by suggesting an ecological response to the contemporary rise of ethno-nationalistic populism in various regions of the world.

Inequality through MNE–emerging economy coevolution? A political actor view on Myanmar/Burma’s peacebuilding

PurposeThis study aims to understand how the coevolution of multinational enterprises (MNEs) and emerging economy institutions affects social and economic (in)equality in an ambiguous, emerging economy context from a political actor perspective.Design/methodology/approachQualitative in nature, the study builds on conversations with 20 political actors involved in the peacebuilding process in Myanmar/Burma. It analyzes their perceptions of interaction of MNEs and host economy institutions from a social constructionist viewpoint.FindingsThe study identifies four coevolution patterns which portray the evolving interaction between MNE activities and different elements of their host institutional environment as well as their consequences for social and economic (in)equality.Originality/valueThis study contributes to critical international business research on emerging economies by emphasizing the different and partly conflicting host institutions of various stakeholder groups involved in the coevolution of MNEs and host institutional environments. The more nuanced conceptualization of the complex institutional environment enables the analysis of inequality as a direct and indirect outcome of MNE–institution interaction. Thus, the study connects to the business and human rights discussion and provides insight into the consequences of MNEs’ adoption of social and environment standards.

Socio-cultural context of half-widows in Kashmir: Issues and concerns

Armed conflict affects people in various ways and it is generally observed that women's sufferings are not accorded adequate attention while assessing the impact of armed conflict as well as in the peace building process. In this paper, existing literature on Half widows in Kashmir has been systematically revised with the aim of studying the gendered aspect of Armed Conflict situation in Kashmir. The relationship between socio-cultural factors and women in midst of armed conflict situations is intended to be studied with the help of existing literature. The research gaps have been identified in the limited studies done on half widows and this calls for a conscious probe into the social milieu of women who are indirect victims of enforced disappearance.

Restoration of the cultural heritage sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina as the basis for intercultural dialogue and development of tourism

This study deals with the buildings and sites destroyed during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly carrying cultural and historical importance. In the last two decades in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there has been an actual reconstruction or restoration of cultural heritage, some of which have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Indeed, "facsimile" reconstruction is often the case, based on the concept "as it was, where it was". Citizens of other faiths and nationalities have often given material and/or moral support to the reconstruction of "different" religious sites, confirming the thesis that they associate one part of their identity with "different". It was the first major war in Europe after World War II, where a great number of cultural goods were destroyed as symbols related to the identities of entire nations. Therefore, the response related to the reconstructions was similar to Europe's response after 1945 and represented a contribution to reconciliation, alleviation of collective trauma, and the development of intercultural dialogue and tourism. The study included an observation method for data collection. Based on conducted observations, the archival method was used for the investigation of documents and textual material, finding data inform of historical documents on architects, designers, the purpose of the settings, constructions, reconstructions, their interaction with areas, proofs on heritage values, and significance for the tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A ll the aforementioned confirms the thesis that from today's perspective, the restored or reconstructed areas are the bearers of intercultural dialogue and the tourist potential of local communities and that reconstruction as the method has a very big role in the peace-building process.

Peacebuilding through the Lens of an Emancipatory Peacebuilding Paradigm

Critical and Emancipatory Theory (CET) of peacebuilding emerged as the sixth school of thought in Peace and Conflict Studies to critique the liberal and neoliberal approaches to peacebuilding. CET contends that liberal and neoliberal approaches to peacebuilding are discriminatory and biased, perpetrates the interest of Western elites, hinders the achievement of social justice, and considers the local as insignificant for peacebuilding. A call for the reformation of the liberal and neoliberal approaches necessitated the CET school of thought to outline certain principles and guidelines that could guide the practice of peace-building. Different methodologies, intervention strategies, principles and approaches that could guide praxis have therefore been advanced by scholars, researchers, and practitioners. This paper therefore examines and reflects on the multiplex methodologies in peacebuilding, the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach to understanding peace and peacebuilding, and the question of intervention in post-war peacebuilding, the principles that guide the implementation of peacebuilding from the lens of Critical and Emancipatory school of thought. This piece contend that CET approach may not be self-sufficient but would be the most appropriate way to decentralize the peacebuilding process and, as such, local or indigenous peacebuilding processes must be encouraged while acknowledging the salient role of the international community as well.

Silent peacemakers: grass-roots transitional justice and peacebuilding by women in Kenya�s North Rift conflicts

African Union�s Transitional Justice Policy (AUTJP) acknowledges that conflicts affect women and girls disproportionately. Implied in this is the need for transitional processes that take into account the gendered nature of conflicts as well as the role of women in contributing to peacebuilding processes and transitional mechanisms. The article contextualises transitional justice within the framework of gender and grass-roots peacebuilding. From both theoretical and empirical perspectives, the article discusses snippets that depict women as contributors to peacebuilding and transitional justice mechanisms in Kenya�s North Rift conflicts. The study shows that women have used responsibility in burdens; advocacy; membership in village peace committees; negotiation with patriarchy; sensitisation and memorialisation; and socio-economic empowerment, as approaches to build peace and transition communities at the grass-roots level. These efforts feed into transitional justice�s tenets of peace processes, reconciliation, social cohesion, memorialisation, and local ownership. The paper illustrates the need for peacebuilders to focus more on integrating women�s voices in local and mainstream peacebuilding mechanisms.

Indonesia's Involvement in the Afghanistan Peacebuilding Process

This article aims to understand and analyse Indonesia's involvement in ensuring peace, especially in peacebuilding efforts in Afghanistan. Indonesia’s commitment to improve its peace efforts in Afghanistan was expressed by President Joko Widodo during his visit to Kabul in 2018. This research used Lederach’s pyramid model of peacebuilding as the primary analysis tool. Lederach’s pyramid model identifies three approaches to peacebuilding, along with the main actors in the population affected by the conflict—namely top leadership, middle range leadership, and grass-root leadership. The results of the study show that Indonesia's involvement in Afghanistan in peace efforts has been carried out at all levels. Indonesia's peacebuilding efforts at the top level are focused on achieving Intra-Afghan Talks. At the middle range level, Indonesia runs capacity building programs and uses a religious approach through ulama. Furthermore, at the grassroots level, Indonesia focuses on empowering Afghan women as peace agents. The presence of Indonesia in all three approaches to Peacebuilding shows a positive mark for the overall Afghan peace process.

Civil Society Leaders’ Experiences of Peacebuilding in Londonderry/Derry City, Northern Ireland: Transforming Cultural and Psychological Barriers

This article reviews the empirical data the second author collected from 120 semi-structured interviews with the leaders of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and funding agency development officers conducted during the summer of 2010 in Northern Ireland and the Border Counties. The research explores 44 Derry City respondents' experiences and perceptions regarding external economic aid in the Northern Ireland peace process. To this end, this article explores the role of economic aid from the International Fund for Ireland (IFI) and the European Union (EU) Peace and Reconciliation or Peace 3 Fund in engaging with civil society in transforming psychological and cultural barriers towards building sustainable peace in Londonderry or Derry City. Themes emerged inductively from data. It includes the CSO leaders' and funding agency development officers' perspectives on building peace and both funds' impact on the Northern Ireland peacebuilding process. CSO leaders and funding agency development officers acknowledge the importance of external economic assistance support in development and forging cross-community contact projects. The interviewees also highlighted issues related to political participation, community competitiveness, and psychological barriers that emerge from CSOs working with both programs. Some of the conclusions are related to broadened peace process interventions to a multi-articulated approach that includes different areas of peacebuilding intervention.

Civil War and Female Empowerment

Recent research has directed attention to the transformative potential of war for female empowerment. As a disruptive shock, armed conflict can create a window of opportunity for advancing the societal role of women. We complement this research agenda by looking at how conflict severity and termination condition the outcomes for women in the aftermath of civil conflict. We expect that both level of violence and mode of resolution affect subsequent female empowerment, where severe conflicts ending by a negotiated settlement have the greatest transformative potential. Consistent with expectations, we find that post-conflict improvements in female empowerment occur primarily after high-intensity civil conflicts. However, subsequent tests reveal that this effect is driven largely by conflicts terminated by peace agreements. The greatest improvement in female empowerment is seen when peace agreements have gender-specific provisions. These results support calls for a sustained effort toward mainstreaming gender issues in conflict resolution and peacebuilding processes.