Payments For Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Integrating future grassland degradation risk to improve the spatial targeting efficiency of payment for ecosystem services.

Spatial targeting plays a key role in improving the efficiency of payment for ecosystem services (PES). However, the risk of grassland degradation after implementing PES increases uncertainty about the efficiency of PES. Here, we identified the spatial heterogeneity of grassland degradation risk using Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model, then incorporated grassland degradation risk as a criterion into PES spatial targeting using cost-benefit analysis and ranking optimization. The framework was applied to a case study of the Three-River-Source National Park, China. We found that grasslands in the study area continued to degrade between 2015 and 2025, and the area of degraded grasslands increased by 26%. Compared with spatial targeting of PES without considering grassland degradation risk, PES spatial targeting that considered grassland degradation risk was significantly different (the overlap area accounted for only 75%, 82%, and 94% of the PES area within 25%, 50%, and 75% of the total protection cost budget). When the grassland degradation risk was considered as a targeting criterion, PES efficiency increased by 154%, 116%, 124%, and 99%, respectively, within 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the total protection cost budget. Our results demonstrate that considering grassland degradation risk in the spatial targeting of PES increases efficiency because it helps to target areas with greater environmental benefits.

Everything Stays the Same while Everything Changes

Everything Stays the Same while Everything Changes

Central and Decentral Aspects of Land Use: Optimizing Public Finance and Payments for Nature in Space by Control Theory

Payments for eco-system services and nature (words are used synonymously) cannot be treated independently from spatial outlays. We adopt a modified “von Thünen” framework and ask for optimal land allocation in space in case of land rent change and regional preference. Yet, our approach is not circular; rather, we see provision of nature along transport routes (stretches, i.e. within a segment or wedge of circle) and ask whether nature (conservation) should be closer to cities or in the periphery; i.e. in terms of priorities, which are planning variables, nature is reckoned as integrated in farming instead of being a segregated entity. For the conflict of amenities from nature (usually wished closer to cities because of lesser transport costs for citizens) vs. provision at the periphery (because of lower opportunity costs), we develop a model which optionally foresees both nature along cities and in peripheral areas. Hereby, we work on the explicit question of land distribution between the two options in space. Our planning approach optimizes nature shares along a gradient from urban to peripheral areas. Further, we include land price dynamics, in general already very pronounced today in intensively used landscapes around cities, and reference to the situation that land prices close to cities are usually quite a bit higher than in periphery. This requests larger payments, inflicted on overall efficacy of programs. As nature provision conflicts with food provision and provate land use, models should also comprise food needs of cities. Yet, we reckon spatial opportunity costs and costs are minimized. Benefits in space for citizens are also spatially distributed. We suggest using control theory in order to attain a comprehensive analysis for and answer to regional priority setting. Archetypally, an integrated vs. a segregated nature provision concept is pursued; nature becomes relatively arranged in a mixed landscape, and farmers receive payments differently.

Shadow prices and abatement cost of soil erosion in Shaanxi Province, China: Convex expectile regression approach

Since 1999, the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP) in China, regarded as one of the largest payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs worldwide, was carried out for the alleviation of soil erosion. The high economic cost of the SLCP has attracted considerable attention to its ecological and economic effects during the past decades. However, reliable evidence about abatement alternatives and abatement costs of soil erosion remains scant. Using panel data of 83 counties observed in Shaanxi Province from 2000 to 2015, the marginal abatement cost (MAC) of soil erosion is accurately evaluated by a directional distance function with convex expectile regression. Besides, we explore how external variables affect shadow prices and the choice of abatement solutions. Our main findings are the following: First, this novel data-driven approach could alleviate the bias from the interference of noise and inefficiency; second, incorporating the investment of the SLCP into the production process allows to find the most cost-efficient abatement solution from both the input side (i.e., increasing the SLCP investment) and the output side (i.e., downscaling the primary industry or downscaling the non-primary industries); third, the temporal-spatial distribution of abatement costs shows that the abatement potential from the SLCP has shrunk gradually, which implies that there might be cost-inefficiency in some counties if the SLCP continues; finally, we recognize that natural conditions, like wind speed and vegetation quality, could influence the input-side abatement cost and output-side abatement cost differently. These results have profound policy implications, asking for more cost-efficient abatement strategies in the future.

The Role of Spatial Information in Peri-Urban Ecosystem Service Valuation and Policy Investment Preferences

The supply of ecosystem services and the benefits that peri-urban areas provide to society are increasingly being modeled and studied using various ecological, environmental, social, and economic approaches. Nevertheless, the different types and levels of demand, preferences, or values for ecosystem services that different human beneficiaries have, often require information and econometric methods to account for human awareness or knowledge of the spatial underpinnings behind these processes, services, and benefits. Specifically, spatial information regarding the location of an ecosystem, its functions, and its services can play an important role in the value and support for policies affecting conservation of peri-urban ecosystems such as payments for ecosystem service (PES) programs. Such PES programs are policy instruments that promote the use of ecosystem services for resources management and conservation objectives. Therefore, to better address this understudied aspect in the landscape ecology and peri-urban ecosystem services modeling literature, we used an online, interactive, spatially explicit survey (n = 2359) in Bogotá, Colombia to evaluate the role of spatial information on investment and policy preferences for such programs. Using an econometric approach to account for respondents’ spatial literacy (i.e., spatial information) of peri-urban ecosystem services, we analyzed how knowledge of space affected an individual’s choices related to ecosystem services and the economic value of environmental and conservation policies. We found that, as spatial literacy increased, respondents were more likely to prefer that government invest in regulating ecosystem services, specifically water resources, and less likely to prefer investing in other ecosystem services. Although spatial literacy did not necessarily affect respondent’s actual willingness to pay (WTP) for these policies in the form of monthly monetary payments, it did influence the types of programs respondents cared about and the magnitude of resources they were willing to invest. Our findings suggested that increasing spatial literacy would change preferences for government spending but not an individuals’ WTP in contexts such as peri-urban areas and PES programs. Results could be used by landscape ecologists, conservation biologists, natural resource scientists, and environmental/ecological economists to better understand and design more efficient education, conservation, and management strategies to increase public engagement in peri-urban contexts.

Estimating residents' WTP for ecosystem services improvement in a payments for ecosystem services (PES) program: A choice experiment approach

Conservation programs help mitigate the detrimental effects on ecosystems and ecosystem services (ES). However, continuous financial support is essential for their sustainability. Therefore, sustainable financing mechanisms such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) are developed. Nevertheless, assessing whether substantial support could be obtained from stakeholders is critical in establishing a PES. This study evaluated the feasibility of establishing a PES by estimating the potential community benefits from ES improvement using a choice modeling approach.The study surveyed 1560 residents of South Carolina to elicit their monthly willingness-to-pay (WTP) for ES improvement. The findings revealed varying WTP estimates depending on the type of intervention, regional location of the residences, and priority ES for improvement. In terms of water quality improvement, the estimated mean WTP ranged from $0 to $3.00. On the other hand, for wildlife habitat improvement, the mean WTP ranged from $0 to $6.39. Finally, for an increase in water supply, only residents from the Upstate region indicated that they are willing with a mean WTP of $0.31. Overall, the community benefits are estimated to reach $4.6 million to $6.2 million monthly, showing that PES is a promising program that could provide a substantial source to support conservation programs.

Application of the protective action decision model in land-use scenario analysis for disaster risk reduction

Land-Change Science is an emergent field that seeks to enhance understanding of the negative impacts of land use and cover change (LUCC) in order to expedite the development of sustainable resource management and sustainable land use policies. Dr Kikuko Shoyama is a research fellow at the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, Japan, who is conducting research on Land-Use Functions. In her latest project, she is focusing on ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR) and she and the team will explore how to utilise Eco-DRR as one of the Land-Use Functions and look at the type of payment system that is needed to support community activities. This work on designing so-called payment for ecosystem services (PES) involves recognising and valuing the variety of services that ecosystems provide to society. Through PES, an awareness and appreciation of the value of ecosystems can be cultivated. In her work on Eco-DRR, Shoyama is investigating the effects of land use policies on disaster reduction, with a focus on flood risk information and the impact of policies that promote or inhibit protective behaviour related to land use. The work involves the use of a hierarchical linear model that extracts the factors affecting protective behaviours by taking into account land ownership and community characteristics. The factors can then be introduced into a land use model and analyses are performed. Ultimately, Shoyama hopes her work will lead to recommendations that will inform a newer land use strategy and social transformative change.

Herdsmen's willingness to accept compensation for grazing ban compliance: Empirical evidence from pastoral China

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) has gained popularity in balancing environmental degradation and economic development. However, many of its key features, particularly price differentiation, are often not considered during design and implementation. Taking China's grassland ecological compensation policy as an example, we empirically examine herders' willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for grazing ban compliance, based on a survey dataset of 352 herder households in the pastoral areas of the Gansu and Qinghai provinces in China. A double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation design was adopted, with interval regression and bivariate probit models adjusted for potential bid anchoring utilized to obtain reliable WTA estimates. The results show that the mean WTA ranges between CNY 193 and CNY 274 per mu, which is significantly higher than the present universal compensation level. Herdsmen's WTA is significantly and positively associated with household size and having migrant worker family members, while it is negatively influenced by age, environmental perception , household income, and sandy soil. We suggest that the basic institution of China's grassland ecological compensation policy (GECP) should be reformed to allow price differentiation, bottom-up participation, and performance-dependent payments. • We examine herdsmen's willingness to accept (WTA) for grazing ban compliance. • A double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation design is adopted. • Estimated WTA is substantially larger than the current compensation level. • WTA decreases with herdsmen's environmental perception. • Price differentiation and bottom-up participation should be allowed.

Negotiating over payments for wetland ecosystem services

AbstractThis paper proposes and examines the economic efficiency of novel payment schemes for the provision of wetland ecosystem services. By definition, payments for ecosystem services typically involve voluntary transactions between the beneficiaries and providers of ecosystem services. We develop a theoretical model that addresses the role that a third party—such as a social planner or government agency, acting in the interest of society—can play to ensure the optimal provision of ecosystem services. We consider different regulatory frameworks combining payments for ecosystem services with a subsidy that the third party grants to the beneficiaries or providers of ecosystem services. We compare the outcomes of the different policy mixes characterized by different levels of involvement of the third party. Of particular interest is the comparison between the outcomes of payments for ecosystem services subsidy arrangements in which the third party plays decentralized and centralized roles. Our results show, among other things, that the third party is indifferent between a negotiated payment for ecosystem services combined with a subsidy scheme and the constrained first‐best payments for ecosystem services subsidy scheme, in the presence of transaction and administrative costs. However, beneficiaries and providers may have conflicting preferences over the two payments for ecosystem services schemes.

Role of abiotic factors in enhancing the capacity of mangroves in reducing ocean acidification.

The present study investigated the effects of rising carbon dioxide levels in nature and the carbon sequestration potential of dominant mangrove species for reducing the toxic effects of ocean acidification. The study was conducted on the east coast of Odisha, in the western Bay of Bengal. To determine the effect of these ambient parameters on the absorption of carbon dioxide by the mangroves, water temperature, salinity, pH levels of seawater along with soil texture and pH, salinity expressed in electrical conductivity, compactness expressed in bulk density, and soil organic carbon were simultaneously monitored. The aboveground biomass and carbon of the selected species were studied for 2 consecutive years at 10 designated stations. The total carbon calculated for the study area varied from 242.50 ± 49.00 to 1321.29 ± 445.52 tons with a mean of 626.68 ± 174.81 tons for Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi mangrove chunks. This is equivalent to 2299.92 ± 641.55 tons of CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere. A total of 27 equations were selected as the best fit models for the study area. The equations between mangrove biomass and carbon along with aquatic and edaphic factors governing the pH of water and soil strongly support the positive influence of mangrove photosynthetic activity in shifting the equilibrium toward alkalinity. This calls for conservation of mangrove ecosystem to minimize the pace of acidification of estuarine water. The results indicate that Excoecariaagallocha and Avicennia marina as are the most capable species for combatting maximum carbon dioxide toxicity from the atmosphere; which will be helpful in REDD + programs and carbon-based payments for ecosystem services (PES).

Animal and plant images in corporate marketing communications are ecosystem services that should be paid for

Animal and plant images are omnipresent in corporate marketing communications. In this short communication, we posit that this is an ecosystem service belonging to the “spiritual, symbolic and other interactions with natural environment,” irrespective of the beneficiary’s presence in the environmental setting. Using a case study of a large Polish producer of building materials that features a white stork in its marketing (advertising, packaging etc.), and a survey of construction professionals, we suggest that this company should actually pay back to white stork conservation. Such a scheme could follow the logic of payments for ecosystem services, and it is in line with previous calls for various species or wildlife royalties. We discuss the context of creating such payments, along with their key advantages and challenges. Ultimately, similar arguments could be made about the use of natural imagery in general.

Integrated assessment of a payment for ecosystem services program in China from the effectiveness, efficiency and equity perspective

Despite growing interest in understanding the outcomes of payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs, there are few systematic and quantitative studies, particularly integrated assessments that consider ecological effectiveness, economic efficiency, and social equity (3E). By integrating remote sensing images, geographic information, household survey data, and policy documents, we present a demonstration from China between 2000 and 2015, which implemented PES programs extensively. At the forest patch level, the Ecological Welfare Forest Program (EWFP) increased forest coverage by 1.35%–2.03%. Furthermore, the EWFP respectively added 68.23–72.55 ton ha−1, 1.87–2.09 ton ha−1, 23.39–35.81 ton ha−1, and 10.12–11.11 MWh ha−1 of water conservation, soil retention, flood regulation, and local climate regulation services. Our results were consistent using different impact evaluation methods. However, forest recovery was achieved at high economic cost, with one hectare increase of forest cover costing 211,000–319,000 USD. EWFP participants experienced lower increases in human well-being and more unequal income distribution compared to non-participants, largely due to the rapid and disproportional increase of business income such as nature-based tourism. We provide recommendations to improve the multidimensional outcomes of PES programs in our study area and beyond. Although our study is an integrated assessment of one PES program, the 3E perspective and methodology may also apply to other conservation policies.

The value of shifting cultivation for biodiversity in Northeast India

AbstractAimShifting cultivation is a widespread land‐use in many tropical countries that also harbours significant levels of biodiversity. Increasing frequency of cultivation cycles and expansion into old‐growth forests have intensified the impacts of shifting cultivation on biodiversity and carbon sequestration. We assessed how bird diversity responds to shifting cultivation and the potential for co‐benefits for both biodiversity and carbon in such landscapes to inform carbon‐based payments for ecosystem service (PES) schemes.LocationNagaland, Northeast India.MethodsWe surveyed above‐ground carbon stocks and bird communities across various stages of a shifting cultivation system and old‐growth forest using composite carbon sampling plots and repeated point counts directly overlaying the carbon plots in both summer and winter. We assessed species diversity using species accumulation and rarefaction curves based on Hill numbers. We fitted a linear mixed‐effect model to assess the relationship between species richness and fallow age. We also examined possible co‐benefits between carbon and biodiversity from fallow regeneration in terms of relative community similarity to old‐growth forest across carbons stocks.ResultsFarmland and secondary forests regenerating on fallowed land had similar bird species richness to old‐growth forests in summer and relatively higher species richness in winter. Within regenerating fallows, we did not find any strong evidence that fallow age influenced bird species richness. Bird community resemblance to old‐growth forest increased with secondary forest maturity, correlating also with carbon stocks in summer. However, bird community assemblage did not show a strong association with habitat types and carbon stocks during winter.Main conclusionsThis study underscores the important role of traditional non‐intensive shifting cultivation in providing refuges for biodiversity within heterogeneous habitat mosaics. Effectively managing these landscapes is crucial for both biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration in the subtropics.

Mangroves Cover Change Trajectories 1984-2020: The Gradual Decrease of Mangroves in Colombia

Awareness of the significant benefits of mangroves to human lives and their role in regulating environmental processes has increased during the recent decades. Yet there remains significant uncertainty about the mangrove change trajectories and the drivers of change at national scales. In Colombia, the absence of historical satellite imagery and persistent cloud cover have impeded the accurate mapping of mangrove extent and change over time. We create a temporally consistent Landsat-derived dataset using the LandTrendr algorithm to track the historical land cover and mangrove conversion from 1984-2020 across Colombia. Over this period, mangrove extent decreased by ~48.000ha (14% of total mangrove area). We find a gradual reduction of mangrove extent along the Pacific coast since 2004, whereas, in the Caribbean, mangrove cover declined around during 1984-1988 and also after 2012. Our time-series analysis matches with drivers of mangrove change at three local sites. For instance, hydroclimatic events, dredging activities, and high sediment loads transported by the rivers have collectively improved mangrove recovery in some sites. In contrast, human activities pressure linked to agricultural expansion and road construction have degraded mangroves. The transition from dense mangrove to other vegetation types is the most significant conversion affecting mangrove cover in Colombia, impacting an area of 38,469 ± 2,829 ha. We anticipate increased mangrove loss, especially along the Pacific coast, resulting from intensified human activity. Prioritization of conservation areas is needed to support local institutions, maintain currently protected areas, and develop strategies (e.g. payment for ecosystem services) to preserve one of the most pristine mangrove regions in the Western Hemisphere.

Payment for ecosystem services in Peru: Assessing the socio-ecological dimension of water services in the upper Santa River basin

Increasing pressures on ecosystems in the Latin American region, as well as the adoption of multilateral conservation commitments, have led to the implementation of instruments that are economic in nature but oriented towards the recovery, conservation, and functioning of ecosystems such as Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES). In the Peruvian Andes, hydro-climatic factors and land-use changes are affecting the capacity of the ecosystems of the glaciated Cordillera Blanca to provide water services, in terms of both quality and quantity, to the main users of the Santa River basin. Thus, this study analyses how the socio-ecological interactions affect, and are affected by, the planned introduction of water-related PES in the Quillcay sub-basin, the most populated sub-basins along the Santa River basin. We use a conceptual model based on the current evolution of the water metabolism approach to integrate into a common language of analysis the multiple dimensions of water: water as an ecological fund, as a service, and as a political asset. To explore the interface of these three domains of analysis we rely on a mixed-method data collection: primary data collection through a stakeholder survey and interviews and a review of information from secondary sources. The result of our case study shows that both the ecological dimension and the social dimension affect on the PES project and vice versa. These complex interactions could result in the design of a mechanism in which not all stakeholders benefit equally. This raises the need to recognise the multidimensional nature of water in the design and implementation of policies, and the importance of identifying processes and barriers which affect the success of these policies without making invisible the direct effect they also have on social-ecological systems.

Management of Timber and Nontimber Forest Products: Evidence from a Framed Field Experiment in Benin, West Africa

Across sub-Saharan Africa, rapid deforestation threatens the economic and environmental benefits forests provide to communities and individuals. These losses are especially salient when forest users benefit from multiple forest products and not just timber resources. Using a common-pool resource (CPR) game in rural Benin framed around a threatened species, Afzelia africana, this paper tests how different payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs may induce conservation behavior among individuals who harvest multiple forest products (e.g., timber and leaves). PES treatments vary along two dimensions: the level of the payment and how the payment is divided among group members. We find evidence that all implemented PES treatments reduce the harvest of timber; however, a high PES payment evenly divided among group members also significantly reduced the harvest of leaves. Our findings suggest that a single-product PES focused only on whole trees might not be effective for multipurpose species.

Trends in Research on Forest Ecosystem Services in the Most Recent 20 Years: A Bibliometric Analysis

Forest resources and the flow of ecosystem services they provide play a key role in supporting national and regional economies, improving people’s lives, protecting biodiversity, and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Based on the ISI (Institute of Scientific Information) Web of Science (WoS) database, we used a bibliometric approach to analyze the research status, evolution process, and hotspots of forest ecosystem services (FES) from a compilation of 8797 documents published between 1997 and 2019. The results indicated that: (1) research on forest ecosystem services has developed rapidly over the past 23 years. Institutions in the United States and other developed countries have significantly contributed to undertake research on the topic of ecosystem services. (2) The 11 hotpot key focus areas of completed research were payments for ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, forest governance, ecosystem approaches, climate change, nitrogen, ecosystem management, pollination, cities, ecological restoration, and policy. (3) The trade-off relationships among ecosystem services, ecosystem resilience and stability have become the research frontier in this field. (4) Future research on FES will likely focus on the formation and evolution mechanism of ecosystem services; the interaction, feedback and intrinsic connections of ecosystem services at different scales; analysis of the trade-offs and synergies; unified evaluation standards, evaluation systems, model construction and scenario analyses; in-depth studies of the internal correlation mechanism between forest ecosystem services and human wellbeing; and realization of cross-disciplinary and multi-method integration in sustainable forest management and decision-making.

Mechanism of payments for hydrological ecosystem services in the Watershed of the Piray Miní stream

To promote the conservation and forest hydrological restoration of the ecosystems located in the watershed of the Piray Miní stream, which supplies water to Eldorado, economic compensation mechanisms are required for the owners of the properties that provide environmental services to society. The objective of this work is to analyze the situation of environmental and socioeconomic factors, related to the watershed of the Piray Miní stream, and to propose a scheme of payments for hydrological ecosystem services for the conservation and restoration of ecosystems. Regarding the materials and methodologies, background analyzes and interviews were carried out; and their own reflections on the subject. The survey of reference watersheds was carried out with the Geographic Information System and land inspections were carried out. As results, environmental, social and economic factors and compensation mechanisms for ecosystem services in force in Argentina were characterized; proposing the assessment and implementation of a compensation scheme for ecosystem services for the watershed of the Piray Miní stream. It is concluded that it is very necessary to implement the proposals to achieve the conservation of the properties that provide hydrological ecosystem services.

Payment for ecosystem services and the practices of environmental fieldworkers in policy implementation: The case of Bolsa Floresta in the Brazilian Amazon

In payment for ecosystem services (PES) models, participants receive payments for conditionally securing the provision of ecosystem services. Nevertheless, various constraints and complex local contexts, common in real-world PES schemes, impede a perfect implementation of the model. I examine how fieldworkers implement PES given financial and monitoring constraints, using the case of the Bolsa Floresta program in the Brazilian Amazon, a policy instrument that pays 50 Brazilian Reais to participating families if they do not deforest primary forests. Building on in-depth interviews and participant observation, I argue that fieldworkers’ actions reveal deviations between PES theory and practice. They use their discretion at the local level to (1) adopt discursive practices that underemphasize the economic component of Bolsa Floresta and complement it with a pedagogical element, and (2) adopt trust-building practices based on organizational routines and boundary-making vis-à-vis command-and-control authorities. This deviation from PES theory implies that different policy instruments require different levels of trust depending on their coerciveness. My fieldworker-oriented approach complements PES scholarship by tying environmental fieldworkers’ routines and practices at the implementation level to strategies to address some common limitations of PES schemes.

The Premium of Hilsa Sanctuary: A Socio-Economic and Ecological Evaluation from the Meghna Estuary, Bangladesh

Sanctuaries are widely regarded as a protected area where fishing has been placed under some restrictions by local, state, regional and national authorities for the conservation and management of fisheries resources. These sanctuaries have a broad array of positive and negative social, economic, cultural and political impacts on fishers. This study aims to analyze the socio-economic and ecological benefits and costs of hilsa sanctuaries to protect single most important hilsa species using Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA). Under the Protection and Conservation of Fish Act of 1950, six sites along the Padma, Meghna, Tetulia, and Andharmanik rivers have been designated as hilsa sanctuaries. Findings of the current study revealed that most fishers perceived production of hilsa and other species were increased as a direct consequences of sanctuaries establishment. However, a considerable proportion of hilsa fishermen was found to have low socioeconomic capital, as measured by monthly income, housing circumstances and asset ownership. During the restricted fishing season in the sanctuaries, these households are particularly vulnerable to food insecurity. The government’s compensation scheme is a good example of payment of ecosystem services in an open water fishery; however, this scheme does not include all the affected fishers. It is found that hilsa sanctuaries lead to income loss of the poor fishers which is insufficiently compensated by government support program. To compensate income loss, fishers resort illegal fishing which undermine the success of sanctuary. If the sanctuaries are to function effectively, affecting fishers must be addressed by offering enough compensation schemes so that fishers are able to support their families. Moreover, some fishers believed that a co-management approach involving fishers and government is the possible best management option for operating sanctuaries in a sustainable way.