Paul's Use Research Articles

A Theology of Glory: Paul's Use of Δόξα Terminology in Romans

According to a common interpretation, Paul’s reference to the lack of God’s glory in Rom 3:23 alludes to the story of Adam and his loss of God’s image. This identification is problematic, however, as most of the evidence that can be cited in its favor is later than Paul. To arrive at a better interpretation, I pay close attention to the development of δόξα terminology in Romans as well as to Paul’s use of Israel’s Scriptures. In the LXX, δόξα refers to the tangible presence of God, a usage that also is able to explain Paul’s terminology. The sixteen occurrences of δόξα in Romans are rich in Septuagintal undertones, in the form of both Septuagintal terminology and more or less clear allusions to the Scriptures of Israel. Against this background, I argue that Paul uses δόξα language in Romans to express his view that God’s revelatory presence in Israel has been rejected but is renewed in Jesus Christ.

A Theology of Glory: Paul's Use of Δόξα Terminology in Romans

According to a common interpretation, Paul's reference to the lack of God's glory in Rom 3:23 alludes to the story of Adam and his loss of God's image. This identification is problematic, however, as most of the evidence that can be cited in its favor is later than Paul. To arrive at a better interpretation, I pay close attention to the development of δόξα terminology in Romans as well as to Paul's use of Israel's Scriptures. In the LXX, δόξα refers to the tangible presence of God, a usage that also is able to explain Paul's terminology. The sixteen occurrences of δόξα in Romans are rich in Septuagintal undertones, in the form of both Septuagintal terminology and more or less clear allusions to the Scriptures of Israel. Against this background, I argue that Paul uses δόξα language in Romans to express his view that God's revelatory presence in Israel has been rejected but is renewed in Jesus Christ.

Paul and ἐγώ: Some Comments on Grammar and Style

Why does Paul use the pronoun ἐγώ, which usually does not affect sense (adequately indicated by a first person singular verb)? The standard explanation, that ἐγώ supplies emphasis, is incomplete at best. A detailed survey of Paul's usage shows various factors: sometimes ἐγώ helps Paul distinguish himself from others, and other times to align himself with them; sometimes it allows a paradoxical construction in which Paul both admits and denies that he has done something; sometimes it seems linked to certain verbs; sometimes it supplies a kind of rhythm to a passage.

Paul the Rabbi of Messianic Judaism: Reading the Antioch Incident within Judaism as an Irreducibility Story

This article presents a reconsideration of the Antioch incident of Gal 2:11–21, arguing that Paul's issue with Peter and the Jewish believers in Jesus in Antioch was not theological, but halakhic, that is, how to live as a Messianic Jew particularly in relationship to Gentile Messiah believers. Paul's use of the story from his days in Antioch analogically served his purpose among Galatian Gentile Messiah-believers by both asserting his apostolic authority and by instructing them to resist any attempt to embrace an ethnically Jewish identity in Messiah. Such an interpretation of this significant Pauline crux derives from two factors. First, the study assumes that Paul was still firmly within the diverse Judaism of the late Second Temple period. Thus, the study considers the meaning of the Antioch incident within the framework of a “Paul within Judaism.” Second, the study applies narratology to the interpretation of Gal 2:11–21. Taking notice of the storied structure of the passage, consisting of a beginning, middle, and end, this article reads the parts of the story in relationship to the whole. The consequence of these two factors is (1) a plausible historical interpretation of the events of Antioch, albeit from Paul's perspective, and (2) a reading of the passage that is sensitive to its literary character.

Paul the Rabbi of Messianic Judaism: Reading the Antioch Incident within Judaism as an Irreducibility Story

This article presents a reconsideration of the Antioch incident of Gal 2:11–21, arguing that Paul's issue with Peter and the Jewish believers in Jesus in Antioch was not theological, but halakhic, that is, how to live as a Messianic Jew particularly in relationship to Gentile Messiah believers. Paul's use of the story from his days in Antioch analogically served his purpose among Galatian Gentile Messiah-believers by both asserting his apostolic authority and by instructing them to resist any attempt to embrace an ethnically Jewish identity in Messiah. Such an interpretation of this significant Pauline crux derives from two factors. First, the study assumes that Paul was still firmly within the diverse Judaism of the late Second Temple period. Thus, the study considers the meaning of the Antioch incident within the framework of a “Paul within Judaism.” Second, the study applies narratology to the interpretation of Gal 2:11–21. Taking notice of the storied structure of the passage, consisting of a beginning, middle, and end, this article reads the parts of the story in relationship to the whole. The consequence of these two factors is (1) a plausible historical interpretation of the events of Antioch, albeit from Paul's perspective, and (2) a reading of the passage that is sensitive to its literary character.

Tablets of Fleshly Hearts: Paul and Ezekiel in Concert

The multiplicity of scriptural allusions that Paul develops in 2 Corinthians provides a window through which to consider Paul's rhetoric and apostolic self-presentation. The present essay seeks to develop the contours of the relationship that develops between Paul and Ezekiel in 2 Corinthians. The primary argument is that Paul's introduction of the prophetic material in Ezekiel, with his specific reference to Ezek 36:26 in 2 Cor 3:3, does not play merely a cursory role in the development of the letter. In contrast, Paul's use of the Ezekiel tradition shapes both the development of his argument and the presentation of his own apostolic identity.

Tablets of Fleshly Hearts: Paul and Ezekiel in Concert

The multiplicity of scriptural allusions that Paul develops in 2 Corinthians provides a window through which to consider Paul's rhetoric and apostolic self-presentation. The present essay seeks to develop the contours of the relationship that develops between Paul and Ezekiel in 2 Corinthians. The primary argument is that Paul's introduction of the prophetic material in Ezekiel, with his specific reference to Ezek 36:26 in 2 Cor 3:3, does not play merely a cursory role in the development of the letter. In contrast, Paul's use of the Ezekiel tradition shapes both the development of his argument and the presentation of his own apostolic identity.

Paul's Koinonia with the Philippians: A Socio‐Historical Investigation of a Pauline Economic Partnership By Julien M.Ogereau. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament II, 377. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Pp. xiv + 592. Paper, €99.00.

This richly detailed and carefully argued revised dissertation (Macquarie University) focuses on the economic, particularly accounting, terminology Paul uses in Philippians in light of documentary (rather than literary) sources. Although a number of nouns and verbs are treated in depth in Part I, the key to Ogereau's approach is his broad survey of the use of κωινων-cognates, undertaken in Chapter 5. He draws on a compendium of original texts and translations from 100 inscriptions and 370 papyri (included as Appendix A and B, respectively), that includes contracts, receipts, leases, decrees, honorific inscriptions, and private letters. He concludes that “κωινωνία could correspond to the legal and commercial Roman concept of societas,” thus affirming the position J. Paul Sampley put forth in 1980 (Pauline Partnership in Christ). The letter itself is the focus of Part II, where the “payoff” for all the philological work of Part I comes in Chapter 7, with an exegesis of Phil 1:3–11 and 4:10–20. Ogereau argues persuasively that “Paul employed the term κωινωνία in reference to the strategic economic partnership he established with the Philippians.” The further argument that “they cooperated in his missionary activities by providing material and human resources, while he performed the work of the ministry” will resonate well with most readers, although I find myself slightly less persuaded in this regard. That said, Ogereau is correct in his conclusion that Paul's use of an explicit business model that applies terminology from the commercial sphere to his relationship with fellow Christ-believers and to his missionary activities will startle those who prefer to see Paul framing such things theologically. In the final chapter, Ogereau draws on Roman legal sources to demonstrate that Paul and the Philippians had mutually agreed to form a financial κωινωνία/societas (“partnership”) with a shared objective, in this case, the proclamation of the gospel—a societas evangelii. Throughout the work, Ogereau digs deeply into the secondary material, providing detailed overviews of the history of scholarship on key issues while arguing the nuances of his points judiciously. Overall, this is a monumental study that is highly recommended and deserves wide attention by scholars.

The Church in the Wilderness: Paul's Use of Exodus Traditions in 1 Corinthians. By Carla SwaffordWorks. WUNT II, 379. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Pp. xiii + 205. Paper, $97.00.

The Church in the Wilderness: Paul's Use of Exodus Traditions in 1 Corinthians. By Carla SwaffordWorks. WUNT II, 379. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Pp. xiii + 205. Paper, $97.00.

“So Shall Your Seed Be”: Paul's Use of Genesis 15:5 in Romans 4:18 in Light of Early Jewish Deification Traditions

In Rom 4:18, Paul cites the “promise” to Abraham in LXX Gen 15:5, “so shall your seed be” (οὕτως ἔσται τὸ σπέρμα σου) in relation to what it means to “become the father of many nations” from Gen 17:5. Modern scholars have traditionally understood the relationship Paul sees between these two texts quantitatively, as promising a multitude of descendants made up of Jews and Gentiles. Conversely, some early Jewish interpreters of Gen 15:5 (and related texts such as Gen 22:17; 26:4) such as Philo, Sirach, and the author(s) of the Apocalypse of Abraham understood the promise qualitatively, as speaking not only of multiplication but of transformation into the likeness of the stars and assumption of their power. Reading Paul's use of Gen 15:5 in light of this qualitative interpretation places him within the context of already well-established deification or angelomorphic traditions in early Judaism that see the destiny of Abraham's seed as replacing the stars as the divine or angelic inheritors of the nations. This tradition may provide a more fitting explanation of the relationship Paul sees between Gen 17:5 and 15:5 in the wider context of the argument of Rom 4. This reading could illuminate the relationship between a complex nexus of ideas that Paul sees implicit in the one promise to Abraham in Gen 15:5. The promise of becoming as the stars of heaven would encompass the inheritance of the cosmos, becoming a father of many nations, and the resurrection from the dead.

“So Shall Your Seed Be”: Paul's Use of Genesis 15:5 in Romans 4:18 in Light of Early Jewish Deification Traditions

In Rom 4:18, Paul cites the “promise” to Abraham in LXX Gen 15:5, “so shall your seed be” (οὕτως ἔσται τὸ σπέρμα σου) in relation to what it means to “become the father of many nations” from Gen 17:5. Modern scholars have traditionally understood the relationship Paul sees between these two texts quantitatively, as promising a multitude of descendants made up of Jews and Gentiles. Conversely, some early Jewish interpreters of Gen 15:5 (and related texts such as Gen 22:17; 26:4) such as Philo, Sirach, and the author(s) of the Apocalypse of Abraham understood the promise qualitatively, as speaking not only of multiplication but of transformation into the likeness of the stars and assumption of their power. Reading Paul's use of Gen 15:5 in light of this qualitative interpretation places him within the context of already well-established deification or angelomorphic traditions in early Judaism that see the destiny of Abraham's seed as replacing the stars as the divine or angelic inheritors of the nations. This tradition may provide a more fitting explanation of the relationship Paul sees between Gen 17:5 and 15:5 in the wider context of the argument of Rom 4. This reading could illuminate the relationship between a complex nexus of ideas that Paul sees implicit in the one promise to Abraham in Gen 15:5. The promise of becoming as the stars of heaven would encompass the inheritance of the cosmos, becoming a father of many nations, and the resurrection from the dead.

Galatians and the Progymnasmata on Refuting a Law: A Neglected Aspect of Pauline Rhetoric

The structure, flow, and logic of Paul's argumentation in Galatians continues to be a subject of debate as scholars seek to read Paul's statements about the law, works of the law, and other aspects of Judaism within a framework that appreciates both the diverse nature of first-century Judaism and Paul's appropriation of his own Jewish heritage. Scholars have also sought to read Paul's letter to the Galatians in light of first-century Greco-Roman rhetorical strategies and conventions. This essay contributes to these discussions by looking at Galatians from an angle that has not yet been considered: the first-century A.D. progymnasmata exercise on the introduction and refutation of a law (νόμου εἰσφορά). This specific compositional exercise drew on the skills mastered in earlier exercises as students utilized compositional and rhetorical skills to persuade the reader (an imaginary audience) to enact or abandon a particular law based on the topics of legality, possibility, advantage, and appropriateness. By reading Galatians through the lens of this particular exercise, it is possible to appreciate the extent to which Paul utilized conventional forms of argumentation about the application of existing laws. This sort of reading contributes to a thicker description of Paul's use of elements of ancient rhetoric.

Galatians and the Progymnasmata on Refuting a Law: A Neglected Aspect of Pauline Rhetoric

The structure, flow, and logic of Paul's argumentation in Galatians continues to be a subject of debate as scholars seek to read Paul's statements about the law, works of the law, and other aspects of Judaism within a framework that appreciates both the diverse nature of first-century Judaism and Paul's appropriation of his own Jewish heritage. Scholars have also sought to read Paul's letter to the Galatians in light of first-century Greco-Roman rhetorical strategies and conventions. This essay contributes to these discussions by looking at Galatians from an angle that has not yet been considered: the first-century A.D. progymnasmata exercise on the introduction and refutation of a law (νόμου εἰσφορά). This specific compositional exercise drew on the skills mastered in earlier exercises as students utilized compositional and rhetorical skills to persuade the reader (an imaginary audience) to enact or abandon a particular law based on the topics of legality, possibility, advantage, and appropriateness. By reading Galatians through the lens of this particular exercise, it is possible to appreciate the extent to which Paul utilized conventional forms of argumentation about the application of existing laws. This sort of reading contributes to a thicker description of Paul's use of elements of ancient rhetoric.

Paul and Homosexual Behavior: A Critical Evaluation of the Excessive-Lust Interpretation of Romans 1:26–27

Abstract One of the strongest arguments that supports an affirming view of same-sex relations is the so-called excessive-lust view. While there are some strengths to this argument, this article will point out the historical and exegetical deficiencies of the excessive-lust interpretation of Romans 1. In particular, there was a diversity of perspectives on same-sex relations in the ancient world, and therefore it cannot be assumed that Paul only had one—the excessive-lust—perspective in view. Moreover, the mention of female same-sex relations, along with Paul's use of φύσιν (“against nature”) and his appeal to the creation account, steer his argument away from an excessive-lust view. Finally, this article will examine Paul's language of passion and desire to show that it does not parallel the excessive-lust perspective that we find in Greco-Roman literature.

God's Planting and God's Building

This article explores the linked images of field and building in 1 Corinthians 3: 5–17, through which Paul seeks to overcome factions and divisions in the church at Corinth. Following a brief introductory discussion of the difference between simile and metaphor as figures of speech, the article examines how Paul's use of the images, established as metaphor, is grounded in a mutual appreciation of topography, history and culture. In this way Paul is able to draw his hearers back to their primary shared beginnings in the Gospel, and thus to rediscover their unity in Christ. By way of conclusion, some outcomes are suggested for Christian discipleship and ministry today.

Letter Carriers and Paul's Use of Scripture

Within the discussion of Paul's use of Scripture, scholars have frequently wondered how his predominantly Gentile congregations would have recognized his often subtle allusions to and echoes of the Old Testament, let alone their broader context. One solution has been to suggest that the carrier of the letter played a role in further explaining its contents. In order to assess the validity of this possibility, this article begins by exploring the role of letter carriers in the ancient world. A survey of the Pauline epistles indicates that his letter carriers performed a similar range of tasks; they were more than merely couriers. They were similar to Greco-Roman envoys, sent as a manifestation of Paul's παρονσία and authorized to act on his behalf. As a result of this survey, two implications emerge for the study of Paul's use of Scripture and the audience's competency to recognize it: (1) Paul's use of envoys suggests they were authorized to explain the contents of the letter further, including his use of Scripture. (2) Given the letter's role to mediate the very presence of Paul himself, it is reasonable to conclude that his envoys engaged in teaching, a central component of his own ministry. Thus, there are solid grounds for suggesting that Paul's letter carriers played a role in helping the audience to recognize Old Testament allusions and echoes, as well as their original context.

Letter Carriers and Paul's Use of Scripture

Within the discussion of Paul's use of Scripture, scholars have frequently wondered how his predominantly Gentile congregations would have recognized his often subtle allusions to and echoes of the Old Testament, let alone their broader context. One solution has been to suggest that the carrier of the letter played a role in further explaining its contents. In order to assess the validity of this possibility, this article begins by exploring the role of letter carriers in the ancient world. A survey of the Pauline epistles indicates that his letter carriers performed a similar range of tasks; they were more than merely couriers. They were similar to Greco-Roman envoys, sent as a manifestation of Paul's παρονσία and authorized to act on his behalf. As a result of this survey, two implications emerge for the study of Paul's use of Scripture and the audience's competency to recognize it: (1) Paul's use of envoys suggests they were authorized to explain the contents of the letter further, including his use of Scripture. (2) Given the letter's role to mediate the very presence of Paul himself, it is reasonable to conclude that his envoys engaged in teaching, a central component of his own ministry. Thus, there are solid grounds for suggesting that Paul's letter carriers played a role in helping the audience to recognize Old Testament allusions and echoes, as well as their original context.

Reconsidering Bελιάρ: 2 Corinthians 6:15 in Its Anti-imperial Jewish Apocalyptic Context

In the history of scholarship, the epithet Bελιάρ in 2 Cor 6:15 has been considered almost unquestionably to be a reference to Satan or a demonic being. Recent studies however have called for a reexamination of Paul's language of the demonic, which can be situated in its political and religious contexts as Jewish Apocalyptic demonization of the Roman Empire and emperor cult. This article will further the inquiry into Paul's language of the demonic by examining how בליץל developed from its meanings in the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint by way of Jewish Apocalyptic literature into Paul's use of the term as Bελιάρ in 2 Cor 6:15. These texts evince a complex notion of Bελιάρ as denoting not only a demonic spirit such as Satan, but often also human referents controlled by Satan, such as foreign rulers who oppose God and his people. Particularly, I will argue that this is the case in the anti-imperial context of 2 Cor 6:14–7:1, where the opponent of Christ as Bελιάρ should be understood as a reference to Nero, who is known as Bελιάρ also in the Sibylline Oracles and the Ascension and Martyrdom of Isaiah. This designation will shed light on Paul's communicative goals to Christians at Corinth, which was established as the center of the Achaian Provincial imperial cult in the same year that Nero became emperor in A.D. 54, just prior to Paul writing 2 Corinthians.

Reconsidering Bελιάρ: 2 Corinthians 6:15 in Its Anti-imperial Jewish Apocalyptic Context

In the history of scholarship, the epithet Bελιάρ in 2 Cor 6:15 has been considered almost unquestionably to be a reference to Satan or a demonic being. Recent studies however have called for a reexamination of Paul's language of the demonic, which can be situated in its political and religious contexts as Jewish Apocalyptic demonization of the Roman Empire and emperor cult. This article will further the inquiry into Paul's language of the demonic by examining how בליץל developed from its meanings in the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint by way of Jewish Apocalyptic literature into Paul's use of the term as Bελιάρ in 2 Cor 6:15. These texts evince a complex notion of Bελιάρ as denoting not only a demonic spirit such as Satan, but often also human referents controlled by Satan, such as foreign rulers who oppose God and his people. Particularly, I will argue that this is the case in the anti-imperial context of 2 Cor 6:14–7:1, where the opponent of Christ as Bελιάρ should be understood as a reference to Nero, who is known as Bελιάρ also in the Sibylline Oracles and the Ascension and Martyrdom of Isaiah. This designation will shed light on Paul's communicative goals to Christians at Corinth, which was established as the center of the Achaian Provincial imperial cult in the same year that Nero became emperor in A.D. 54, just prior to Paul writing 2 Corinthians.

Book Review: Paul's Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9.10–18: An Intertextual and Theological Analysis

Book Review: Paul's Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9.10–18: An Intertextual and Theological Analysis