Patriarchal Masculinity Research Articles

The use of <i>Imago Dei</i> as a pastoral healing vision against women killings in the South African context

The exploitation and killings of women in South Africa are a concern not only for the government, but also for pastoral caregivers as well. Although the government has introduced institutions like the Commission for Gender Equality with responsibilities to ensure that there is equality between genders, it seems that the supposed patriarchal masculine superiority continues to demonstrate its dominance through the abuse, as well as the killings of women. Assigning women to the status of secondary citizens who are tortured and exposed to gender-based violence is not only unconstitutional, but also biblically wrong, as we can see from the biblical message of the creation of human beings. The goal of this article is to use the premise of �the image of God� to argue that women also are created in the image of God and hence they are worthy to be treated as such, from sexual harassment, sexual abuse and violence to murder. This is my personal observation as women of this country are being killed by their husbands and boyfriends. This article will use case studies to argue that women (just like men) deserve, as images of God, to live freely without fear of being killed by their husbands and boyfriends for whatever wrongdoing.

Yael Manes. Motherhood and Patriarchal Masculinities in Sixteenth-Century Italian Comedy. Studies in Performance and Early Modern Drama. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2011. ix + 148 pp. $89.95. ISBN: 978–1–4094–3440–5.

Yael Manes. Motherhood and Patriarchal Masculinities in Sixteenth-Century Italian Comedy. Studies in Performance and Early Modern Drama. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2011. ix + 148 pp. $89.95. ISBN: 978–1–4094–3440–5. - Volume 65 Issue 3

Gendered Play and Evaluation of Computer Video Games by Young South Africans

This study investigates the preferences and attitudes of young South Africans who play and evaluate computer video games. The quantitative data reported here is part of a partially mixed concurrent quantitative/qualitative research design. Seventy-eight participants (14 to 24 years old) took part in game play workshops that lasted for five days, after which they answered a survey. Results show that young South African women and men like similar games, identify with female game characters, dislike cognitively challenging games, and rate their competitiveness in a similar way. It is argued that participants performed their gendered stereotypes based on prior social experiences in and expectations of the patriarchal and heteronormative masculine South African society. The study also discusses the implications for the use of games in the classroom.

“This Base Stallion Trade”: He‐whores and Male Sexuality on the Early Modern Stage

Recent scholarship on early modern male sexuality has stressed the threat that sexual relations with women were believed to pose to manhood. Focusing on such plays as Middleton's Your Five Gallants (c. 1608), Fletcher and Massinger's The Custom of The Country (c.1620), and Davenant's The Just Italian (1630), this paper analyzes representations of male prostitutes for women to argue that cultural attitudes toward male sexual performance were more complex and self-contradictory than generally acknowledged. The patriarchal codes that warned against effeminating sexual desire and advocated parsimonious seminal “spending” are undermined by their own inherent corollary: the most masculine man is one who can demonstrate unlimited seminal capacity. Furthermore, it has been posited that the early modern period marked the beginning of a shift from “reproductive” to “performative” constructions of manhood, in which the manhood-affirming aspects of male sexuality gradually became unmoored from their traditional association with bloodlines and attached instead to penetrative sexual conquest. The class implications of this shift inform patriarchal anxieties about the superior sexual stamina of servant-class men and their bodily “service” to elite women. Representing a fantasy of empowering male sexuality that relies on detaching virile performance from effeminating desire—a physiologically absurd notion—and on providing sexual “service” while leaving intact both class and gender hierarchies, a successful he-whore like Middleton's Tailby or Davenant's Sciolto playfully challenges the dictates of patriarchal masculinity by fulfilling them in absurd and unorthodox ways. Ultimately, he illuminates just how untenable those dictates might be.

A Patriotic Deus ex Machina in Flannery O'Connor's "The Displaced Person"

Good and evil appear to be joined in every culture at spine. --Flannery O'Connor, The Catholic Novelist in Critical attention to relationship between religion and southern-ness in Flannery fiction has long been focused through her famous observation that while South is hardly Christ-centered, it is most certainly Christ-haunted (Collected Works 818). Many critics have productively tested incisiveness of this statement in their readings of stories and have naturally focused on how Divine Son haunts South. Comparatively few, however, have investigated how fathers--both divine and human--haunt landscapes. As a result, not enough has been said about what this fatherly haunting suggests regarding general position on specifically patriarchal masculinity, and how a sense of this position could in turn inform and clarify her critiques of modern Western life as situated in postwar American South. Louise Westling has helpfully drawn attention to absent patriarch featured in works and rightly notes that O'Connor's ultimate identification is with this paternal authority [in its absolute form], Judeo-Christian God (111). Westling goes on to establish a father/daughter punishment motif in fiction that reveals the disastrous consequences for women who accept ... and identify with father's (121). This interpretation, like Claire Kahane's argument that was aesthetically invested in identifications with masculine power to denial of feminine, can at times overemphasize gender categories as ends in and of and reduce theological element of work to a biographical dimension. (1) More recent studies of patriarchy in have moved even further along this line. In a 2004 collection of feminist reconsiderations, J. June Schade, for example, accurately observes that O'Connor incorporated into her fiction what she considered to be fundamental flaws affecting social hierarchy of South, but she too neatly aligns with Virginia Woolf as a fellow woman writer committed to illustrating system of patriarchal authority in order to expose its 'contradictions' (157). Similarly limited is Teresa Caruso's call for feminist readers to use fiction as a resource for new ideas valuable for ways in which they turn patriarchal notions around and against themselves (6). Such readings emphasize straightforward, antagonistic relationships between and monumental masculinities built into both Catholicism and southern culture. As such, they simplify complexities of presiding commitment to a deeply patriarchal religion and formation in a classically patriarchal culture, given that this commitment was made manifest through satirical representations of institution of patriarchy itself as emptied of any positive theological regard and self-destructing through its own misapplication and undermining. In other words, was absolutely interested in relationship between religion, culture, gender, and power, specifically as it came through interplay of divinity, masculinity, authority, and power. This is dramatically evident in her short story The Displaced Person, in which imagines devolution of patriarchy from its ordered relationship to Divine Father to a darkly modern phenomenon: hollowing out of theological categories for morally justifiable action, to be held in place and then filled in with principles derived secondarily from sectarian nationalist, racialist, and xenophobic categories. Through this story reveals that all of these categories, in their devolved manifestations, depend upon and promote a self-interested, patriarchal complex of authority which, in its strategic invocations of and associations with God-the-Father, in fact signals a lack of any positive patriarchal element in male characters' actions. …

Exhuming the History of Feminist Masculinity: Condorcet, 18th Century Radical Male Feminist

This work addresses bell hooks’s call for the development of an alternative to patriarchal masculinity which she calls feminist masculinity. Patriarchal masculinity has convinced most men and women that the development of different forms of masculinity goes against our biological nature. Yet there exists a history of men’s experiences that contradicts this perspective and amounts to, I argue, men’s feminist history. In particular I argue that the life and work of French philosophe Condorcet constitutes a historical cornerstone for feminist masculinity. An important implication of this work is the understanding that gender dissolution is not the only strategy capable of rectifying gender inequality. Siding with a range of feminist perspectives, from ecofeminism and Black feminism, I contend that we can accomplish much through a critical reconstruction of men and masculinity, including the reevaluation of historic figures such as Condorcet.

Student Engagement in Higher Education: Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Approaches for Diverse Populations (review)

excluded AAPI, Latinos, and Native Americans from discussions related to improving the educational experiences of men of color (Perez II, 2014; Teranishi, 2010; Torres & Bitsoi, 2011). This book offers a persuasive critique of deficit-oriented paradigms that often guide interventions intended to increase the success of students of color in higher education. Men of Color in Higher Education is a must-read for researchers and educators committed to fostering the success of AAPI, Black, Latino, and Native American men. Although some readers may contend that this book essentializes the experiences of men of color, I disagree. The contributors make a compelling case for understanding and addressing the detrimental effects of patriarchal masculinity on communities of color. The feminist perspectives infused throughout this text, provide readers with the knowledge needed to recognize and deconstruct patriarchy. Additionally, readers have much to gain from integrating anti-deficit perspectives into research, policies, and practices to increase the success of men of color. A concluding chapter that outlines implications for policy and practice would broaden the scope of this publication. Learning to recognize and capitalize on the assets men of color bring with them to higher education advances the agenda of this book. Future editions of this scholarly text could focus exclusively on women of color as well as AAPI, Latino, and Native American men in higher education.

Bobbittizing God: On the Importance of the Divine Genitals Remaining unManageable

Eilberg-Schwartz’s “seminal” book, God’s Phallus , tapped into an unexplored anxiety about how we can call God “He” when we aren’t sure whether God has male genitals, since we have no textual evidence from the Bible to support the patriarchal masculine metaphors. Eilberg-Schwartz published his work (1994) prior to the impact upon theology of Butler’s Gender Trouble (1999) and Undoing Gender (2004), which argued, by inference, for the disconnection between genitals (e.g., phallus) and gender (e.g., masculinity). Butler’s theories offer a way through Eilberg-Schwartz’s phallic anxiety, but I had to find how to ground these theories in my personal experiences before I could grasp the possibilities of simply not caring whether or not God has genitals. After encapsulating the theories of Eilberg-Schwartz and Butler, and noticing how Freud himself disconnects desire from genitals, I track the character development of an Auckland drag queen called Ophelia Sphincta, as she learned to separate her biological sex from her performed gender. I then muse upon an article I co-authored recently with a Samoan minister, in which we explored new metaphors for speaking about God, based on the Samoan third-gender called fa’afafine . The underlying tone of this presentation is my continuing frustration at the church’s lack of productive creativity in dealing with gender and the Divine, even after thirty years of feminist scholarship in Bible.

The Politics of NASCAR Dads: Branded Media Paternity

The figure of the NASCAR dad emerged in the 2002 and 2004 campaign seasons to signal the importance of white, male Southern voters to politicians and their political parties. Analysis of television news coverage of NASCAR dads shows that it privileges patriarchal masculinity, the Republican Party, and corporate consumerism—all of which were propelled to high visibility by the NASCAR Corporation's place in these stories. Television news produces NASCAR dads as an “emotional brand,” a population of citizen-consumers representing the appropriation of patriotism, Christianity, and fatherhood, deployed in a politically conservative fashion.

Cool/Manly? Boys Growing into Good and Gorgeous Men.

This paper invites counsellors to reflect on ideas about adolescent boys and their relationships with mothers and fathers. The paper responds to ideas circulating at present based on Celia Lashlie's book He'll Be OK: Growing Gorgeous Boys into Good Men (2005). The author raises cautions about general interpretations and conclusions based on what adolescent boys say and do in public contexts. In particular, the author reflects on the ways public contexts, gender categorisations and patriarchal masculinity influence adolescent boys' lives. The paper especially highlights how general interpretations and conclusions reproduce the same cultural stories that contribute to the problems in the lives of adolescent boys and those who love them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of New Zealand Journal of Counselling is the property of New Zealand Association of Counsellors and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Zwischen Omnipotenz und Ohnmacht, Überhöhung und Unterwanderung: Zerfall der „Vaterordnung" und Masochismus bei Bruno Schulz

Bruno Schulz, an art teacher and one of the most prominent members of the Polish avant-garde, was the third child of a Jewish clothier, born in 1892 in Galician Drohobycz at the outskirts of the Habsburg Empire. It was there that he was shot and killed on the street by a Gestapo officer in 1942. The essay examines Schulz's autobiographical narratives,,Zimtladen (Cinnamon Store) and Sanatorium zur Todesanzeige (Sanatorium to Obituary), which create a private mythology. The narratives are placed in the social-cultural environment of Galicia at the beginning of the 20 th century and will be examined with regard to the father-son relationship and gender issues. In the analysis of the narratives' gender constructions (adoring and at the same time killing the feminine), Gilles Deleuze's masochism concept proves helpful. The background of Jewish culture is also taken into consideration. The author shows how Schulz simultaneously reconstructs and deconstructs discredited patriarchal masculine ideals. She examines as well Schulz's repeatedly unsuccessful attempts to inscribe his father-figure with traditional father-mythos.

Gender, school management and educational reforms: a case study of a primary school in Hong Kong

Across the globe, many countries have incorporated new managerialism and marketization to reform their education systems. Feminist studies have already pointed out that these changes are gendered and masculinized and have documented their impacts on women teachers in secondary, higher and further education. Yet interestingly, while primary teaching is a feminized occupation, the ways that these changes and the associated practices are gendered and affected women teachers are relatively under‐researched . This article, based on a case school in Hong Kong, attempts to fill this gap. By teasing out the gendered assumptions embedded in management strategies, it will show how an entrepreneurial school has attempted to succeed in a competitive educational market by exploiting young women, discriminating motherhood and forging competition among women of different educational qualifications. While making visible the patriarchal interests and masculine norms of the school, the article also aims to illuminate the contradictions and tensions inherent in, or generated, by those strategies.

?Am I no better than a eunuch??: Narrating Masculinity and Empire in Ford Madox Ford'sThe Good Soldier

A '. no better than a eunuch or is the proper man ? the man with the right to existence ? a raging stallion forever neighing after his neighbour's womenkind?1 With these words John Dowell, the narrator of Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier (1915), articulates the anxieties that prompt his incessant revisions of his identity.2 The disjunction between his own self-conception and his new understanding of masculinity creates his central crisis. Throughout the novel, Ford presents the operative definition of patriarchal masculinity in late Victorian/Edwardian England as inextricably linked to the assumptions and practices of imperialism, likening the expectation that men transgress boundaries in order to possess ever more women to the scramble for colonies among colonial powers. While this imperialistic definition of masculinity grants a certain degree of power to those male characters that enact it, the definition not only limits the female characters but disables the male characters as well. Ford depicts late Victorian/Edwardian culture offering no alternatives to this definition of masculinity: the male characters either follow the definition compulsively, even at times against their explicitly stated wishes, or they do not compete and consequently are emasculated or destroyed. For decades critics have discussed The Good Soldier in terms of its narrative technique, but the novel's treatment of imperialism, its reflection upon the mutually reinforcing relationship between imperialism and patriarchy, and its exploration of narrative in relation to these topics remain virtually

"Am I no better than a eunuch?" Narrating Masculinity and Empire in Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier

Am I no better than a eunuch?":Narrating Masculinity and Empire in Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier Karen A. Hoffman "Am I no better than a eunuch or is the proper man—the man with the right to existence—a raging stallion forever neighing after his neighbour's womenkind?"1 With these words John Dowell, the narrator of Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier (1915), articulates the anxieties that prompt his incessant revisions of his identity.2 The disjunction between his own self-conception and his new understanding of masculinity creates his central crisis. Throughout the novel, Ford presents the operative definition of patriarchal masculinity in late Victorian/Edwardian England as inextricably linked to the assumptions and practices of imperialism, likening the expectation that men transgress boundaries in order to possess ever more women to the scramble for colonies among colonial powers. While this imperialistic definition of masculinity grants a certain degree of power to those male characters that enact it, the definition not only limits the female characters but disables the male characters as well. Ford depicts late Victorian/Edwardian culture offering no alternatives to this definition of masculinity: the male characters either follow the definition compulsively, even at times against their explicitly stated wishes, or they do not compete and consequently are emasculated or destroyed. For decades critics have discussed The Good Soldier in terms of its narrative technique, but the novel's treatment of imperialism, its reflection upon the mutually reinforcing relationship between imperialism and patriarchy, and its exploration of narrative in relation to these topics remain virtually [End Page 30] unexplored.3 I see Ford emphasizing narrative as a means of negotiating anxiety and ambivalence about identity, in particular the crisis of imperialistic masculinity. Paralyzed by the intersection of masculinity and imperialism and shaken by threats to the gentry system, patriarchy, and, by extension, British imperialism, Dowell turns to narrative to manage his anxieties, yet even his narrative at times becomes a medium for enacting imperialistic crossings of identity borders. By bringing Dowell's narrative act to the foreground, Ford positions Dowell as a fictive autobiographer who shapes his self-presentation to meet his specific desires and anxieties at the time of "writing."4 While much modernist literature is known for self-consciously drawing attention to itself as text, The Good Soldier particularly stands out for its explicit commentary on the narrative process and its enactment of Dowell's repeated revisions. As Richard A. Hood articulates, Ford turns "away from the conventions of narrative and toward a direct confrontation with the action of narrating."5 Ford shows Dowell raising the question of how to tell his story: "I don't know how it is best to put this thing down—whether it would be better to try and tell the story from the beginning, as if it were a story; or whether to tell it from this distance of time [. . .]" (p. 15). In fact, Dowell tells the story both ways simultaneously, not only representing himself and others according to his past understanding but also bursting into his own narrative with abrupt revisions of events and identities. ("No, by God, it is false! It wasn't a minuet that we stepped; it was a prison—a prison full of screaming hysterics [. . .]. And yet I swear by the sacred name of my creator that it was true. It was true sunshine; the true music; the true plash of the fountains from the mouth of stone dolphins" (p. 12)).6 Most obviously, Dowell's shifts between his previously and presently-held views can be read as vacillations between denial and acknowledgement that Florence and Edward have both had extramarital affairs, including with each other. But these shifts also allow Ford to draw attention [End Page 31] to the ideological contradictions that destabilize Dowell's sense of his own identity and send into motion his narrative as a performance of his identity in the present. When Dowell states, "I don't know that analysis of my own psychology matters at all to the story," he could not be further from the truth (p. 73). In depicting Dowell's anxieties through fictional events from 1892-1913, Ford reflects...

Macro and Micro Dynamics of Male Sexual Anxiety: Theory and Intervention

Both traditional masculine socialization and patriarchal historical arrangements suppress men’s need for emotional connectedness and self-disclosure and limit the sexual and intimate scripts available to men in post-industrial society. In this paper, we use theory and personal narrative to examine how an experience we term “male sexual anxiety” can result from dysfunctional meanings associated with socialization into a mechanistic masculine script of toughness, competitiveness, autonomy, and hypersexuality. Male sexual anxiety, in turn, can exacerbate inadequacies in selfconceptions and intimate relationships. We propose that the underlying symptoms of male sexual anxiety include the personal and relational discomfort resulting from the constant preoccupation with sex as well as the considerable risks and expenditure of resources from sexual pursuits. We show how male sexual anxiety is linked to the alienating relations embodied in patriarchal masculine sociocultural and postindustrial economic arrangements.

If “Boys Will Be Boys,” Then Girls Will Be Victims? A Meta-Analytic Review of the Research That Relates Masculine Ideology to Sexual Aggression

In feminist sociocultural models of rape, extreme adherence to the masculine gender role is implicated in the perpetuation of sexual assault against women in that it encourages men to be dominant and aggressive, and it teaches that women are inferior to men and are sometimes worthy of victimization. Many researchers have linked components of masculine ideology to self-reports of past sexual aggression or future likelihood to rape. Thirty-nine effect sizes were examined in this meta-analysis across 11 different measures of masculine ideology to determine how strongly each index of masculine ideology was associated with sexual aggression. Although 10 of the 11 effect sizes were statistically significant, the 2 largest effects were for Malamuth's construct of “hostile masculinity” (e.g., Malamuth, Sockloskie, Koss, & Tanaka, 1991) and Mosher's construct of “hypermasculinity” (e.g., Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), both of which measure multiple components of masculine ideology including acceptance of aggression against women and negative, hostile beliefs about women. The next strongest relationships concerned measures of agreement that men are dominant over women and measures of hostility toward women. Scores on general measures of gender-role adherence, such as the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), were not strong predictors of sexual aggression. Sociocultural models that link patriarchal masculine id eology and situational factors to sexual aggression should prove most predictive in future research.

Writing Men: Literary Masculinities from Frankenstein to the New Man

In Writing Men, Berthold Schoene-Harwood develops a trajectory of masculine emancipation from the monstrous imagery of nineteenth-century fiction to contemporary men writers' experimental new discourse of ecriture masculine. Looking at 13 individual case studies, Schoene-Harwood outlines the historical development of literary representations of masculinity from Mary Shelley's Frankenstein to Ian McEwan's The Child in Time. Subdivided into four parts, the study's first section takes a journey into the nineteenth-century pre-history of post-war and contemporary British men's writing, introducing readers to literature's capacity to both consolidate and unsettle traditional conceptions of femininity and masculinity. In Part II, detailed readings of modern classics such as Lord of the Flies, A Clockwork Orange, Look Back in Anger and Room at the Top reveal the persistence of patriarchal gender hierarchies in the 1950s and early 1960s. The third and central section explores the influence feminist thought has had on some men's contemporary re-imaging of themselves beyond the confines of traditional gender formations. The final section discusses Neil Bartlett's Ready to Catch Him Should He Fall as an attempt to subvert patriarchal masculinity from a gay male perspective. Inspired by feminist theory and the new academic discipline of Men's Studies, Schoene-Harwood analyses men's writing both in relation to women's writing and as a literary genre in its own right. Arguing for a new discourse of ecriture masculine, Writing Men makes a challenging and theoretically ambitious contribution to current critical debates on the literary representation of gender. Key Features: * The study comprises detailed, innovative and original readings of 13 works of literature * It historicises the literary representation of masculinity by outlining its development from the nineteenth century to the immediate present * Its introductory, yet sophisticated approach will appeal to students, academics, specialists and non-specialists alike

Signs of Masculinism in an 'Uneasy' Place: Advertising for 'Big Brothers'

'Big Brothers' is an international, philanthropic fraternal organisation dedicated, in its own words, 'to match boys seven to seventeen from lone-parent female families with mature male role models over eighteen … toward contributing to the healthy development of these children'. A primary objective of this 90 year-old institution is thus to instil a masculine culture and nurture a masculine identity in male children by providing an adult male presence, 3-4 hours a week, in the lives of boys without a male role model. This article asks, which kinds of masculine identities are promoted as acceptable and why? Drawing upon the geographies of feminism, masculinity, and advertising, the article presents a socio-semiotic analysis of the format, content and signs employed by 'Big Brothers' of Canada and the USA in their recruitment campaigns. Using printed promotional material spanning the institute's history, as well as an interview with the Marketing Director of a recent Big Brother recruitment campaign, the slogans, icons, and gender-myths used to represent males and same-sex friendships in the symbolic spaces of their advertisements are critiqued. Results exemplify the instability of the 'masculine gaze' and suggest that the discourse of patriarchal masculinity situates the Big Brothers institute itself in an 'uneasy' place, one where the masculine gender-myths may be collapsing but are nevertheless evoked to ensure volunteers and society at large that a 'legitimate' form of homosocial masculinity prevails, one that does not transgress 'out of bounds' and into the 'homosexual'.

MOTHERS AND LOVERS IN SOME NOVELS BY KAFKA AND BROD

Gender studies using literary materials have as yet said little about the part played by separation from the mother in shaping masculinity. Its importance is illustrated from three novels by Kafka and Brod. In Der Verschollene, mother‐figures are threatening or untrustworthy, and sexually active women arouse fear. Brod's Das große Wagnis expresses frankly the nostalgia of adult men for nonsexual maternal love, and assigns women a quasi‐religious redemptive function. In Das Schloß, a response to Brod's novel, Kafka suggests a theology centring on the Fall into adult sexuality; his characters, male and female, are romantically enthralled by a patriarchal masculinity that cannot provide lasting happiness; a playful, feminised state preceding separation from the mother can only be glimpsed nostalgically, and the protagonist poignantly fails to recreate it in an adult relationship.

Reading and Living Images of Masculinity: Comments on Parker's 'Wild Men'

Hermeneutic impulses which continue the interpretative flows around the foci indicated in Parker's 'Masculinity and Cultural Change: Wild Men' (1995) do not just flow by themselves, but open new lines for discovery. As the 'Wild Man' is understood in Parker's text as sthe eruption into the body politic of a new version of psychoanalytic subjectivity', new meanings of Reichian and Habermasian forms of psychoanalytic knowledge are explored (stressing Reich's social understanding of psychoanalysis and warning that Habermas's universalistic claims, as the core of his point of view, cannot be preserved in a feminine interpretation of his communication discourse). It is also suggested that arguments delivered in developmental psychology by Piaget and Vygotsky should be taken into account in order to examine the relationship between the internal and external world and their qualities. In spite of different cultural patterns a promotion of a common patriarchal masculine pattern is recognized in the social context of the present author, not as men's writing, but as a nationalist ideology.