Biology Of Pathogen Research Articles

Filtration mechanisms and manufacturing methods of face masks: An overview

Face masks are loose-fitting masks that cover the nose and mouth and have ear ties at the back of the head whereas respirators are tight-fitting face covering devices which filter the air during inhalation and exhalation. Guidelines issued by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) regarding proper design, filtration process and wearing should be followed. The mask equipment provides protection against the infections caused by particulate matters (PM), especially PM2.5, and biological pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. Although face masks offer benefits to a greater extent, it is not recommended to wear them for a long period of time. As N95 masks closely fit with the face, it may result in negative impact on respiratory and dermal mechanisms of human thermoregulation. In this article, currently available face masks including cloth masks, their filtration mechanisms, manufacturing methods and decontamination methods are reviewed for the purpose of helping with the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19).

Proteomics in Influenza Research: The Emerging Role of Posttranslational Modifications.

Influenza viruses continue evolving and have the ability to cause a global pandemic, so it is very important to elucidate its pathogenesis and find new treatment methods. In recent years, proteomics has made important contributions to describing the dynamic interaction between influenza viruses and their hosts, especially in posttranslational regulation of a variety of key biological processes. Protein posttranslational modifications (PTMs) increase the diversity of functionality of the organismal proteome and affect almost all aspects of pathogen biology, primarily by regulating the structure, function, and localization of the modified proteins. Considerable technical achievements in mass spectrometry-based proteomics have been made in a large number of proteome-wide surveys of PTMs in many different organisms. Herein we specifically focus on the proteomic studies regarding a variety of PTMs that occur in both the influenza viruses, mainly influenza A viruses (IAVs), and their hosts, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination and ubiquitin-like modification, glycosylation, methylation, acetylation, and some types of acylation. Integration of these data sets provides a unique scenery of the global regulation and interplay of different PTMs during the interaction between IAVs and their hosts. Various techniques used to globally profiling these PTMs, mostly MS-based approaches, are discussed regarding their increasing roles in mechanical regulation of interaction between influenza viruses and their hosts.

Population Genomics of Filamentous Plant Pathogens-A Brief Overview of Research Questions, Approaches, and Pitfalls.

With ever-decreasing sequencing costs, research on the population biology of plant pathogens is transitioning from population genetics-using dozens of genetic markers or polymorphism data of several genes-to population genomics-using several hundred to tens of thousands of markers or whole-genome sequence data. The field of population genomics is characterized by rapid theoretical and methodological advances and by numerous steps and pitfalls in its technical and analytical workflow. In this article, we aim to provide a brief overview of topics relevant to the study of population genomics of filamentous plant pathogens and direct readers to more extensive reviews for in-depth understanding. We briefly discuss different types of population genomics-inspired research questions and give insights into the sampling strategies that can be used to answer such questions. We then consider different sequencing strategies, the various options available for data processing, and some of the currently available tools for population genomic data analysis. We conclude by highlighting some of the hurdles along the population genomic workflow, providing cautionary warnings relative to assumptions and technical challenges, and presenting our own future perspectives of the field of population genomics for filamentous plant pathogens.

Population Genomics of Bacterial Plant Pathogens.

Population genomics is transforming our understanding of pathogen biology and evolution, and contributing to the prevention and management of disease in diverse crops. We provide an overview of key methods in bacterial population genomics and describe recent work focusing on three topics of critical importance to plant pathology: (i) resolving pathogen origins and transmission pathways during outbreak events, (ii) identifying the genetic basis of host specificity and virulence, and (iii) understanding how pathogens evolve in response to changing agricultural practices.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Genetic Manipulation of Borrelia.

Genetic studies in Borrelia require special consideration of the highly segmented genome, complex growth requirements and evolutionary distance of spirochetes from other genetically tractable bacteria. Despite these challenges, a robust molecular genetic toolbox has been constructed to investigate the biology and pathogenic potential of these important human pathogens. In this review we summarize the tools and techniques that are currently available for the genetic manipulation of Borrelia, including the relapsing fever spirochetes, viewing them in the context of their utility and shortcomings. Our primary objective is to help researchers discern what is feasible and what is not practical when thinking about potential genetic experiments in Borrelia. We have summarized published methods and highlighted their critical elements, but we are not providing detailed protocols. Although many advances have been made since B. burgdorferi was first transformed over 25 years ago, some standard genetic tools remain elusive for Borrelia. We mention these limitations and why they persist, if known. We hope to encourage investigators to explore what might be possible, in addition to optimizing what currently can be achieved, through genetic manipulation of Borrelia.

Vickermania gen. nov., trypanosomatids that use two joined flagella to resist midgut peristaltic flow within the fly host

BackgroundThe family Trypanosomatidae encompasses parasitic flagellates, some of which cause serious vector-transmitted diseases of humans and domestic animals. However, insect-restricted parasites represent the ancestral and most diverse group within the family. They display a range of unusual features and their study can provide insights into the biology of human pathogens. Here we describe Vickermania, a new genus of fly midgut-dwelling parasites that bear two flagella in contrast to other trypanosomatids, which are unambiguously uniflagellate.ResultsVickermania has an odd cell cycle, in which shortly after the division the uniflagellate cell starts growing a new flagellum attached to the old one and preserves their contact until the late cytokinesis. The flagella connect to each other throughout their whole length and carry a peculiar seizing structure with a paddle-like apex and two lateral extensions at their tip. In contrast to typical trypanosomatids, which attach to the insect host’s intestinal wall, Vickermania is separated from it by a continuous peritrophic membrane and resides freely in the fly midgut lumen.ConclusionsWe propose that Vickermania developed a survival strategy that relies on constant movement preventing discharge from the host gut due to intestinal peristalsis. Since these parasites cannot attach to the midgut wall, they were forced to shorten the period of impaired motility when two separate flagella in dividing cells interfere with each other. The connection between the flagella ensures their coordinate movement until the separation of the daughter cells. We propose that Trypanosoma brucei, a severe human pathogen, during its development in the tsetse fly midgut faces the same conditions and follows the same strategy as Vickermania by employing an analogous adaptation, the flagellar connector.

МУЛЬТИПЛЕКСНАЯ ПЦР ДЛЯ ИНДИКАЦИИ И ДИФФЕРЕНЦИАЦИИ ВОЗБУДИТЕ-ЛЕЙ РЕСПИРАТОРНЫХ ВИРУСНЫХ ИНФЕКЦИЙ КРУПНОГО РОГАТОГО СКОТА

Thus, as a result of the conducted polymerase chain reaction, it has been established that the mixture of oligonucleotide primers when interacting with one of the DNA markers does not inter-fere with accumulation of specific amplification products. Each biological pathogen corresponds an individual fluorescent marker for bovine viral diarrhea channel R6G, for parainfluenza-3-channel Fam, and for infectious rhinotracheitis Cy5.

Biological pathogenic agents as a subject of the crime provided by article 326 of the Criminal code of Ukraine

The article examines the subject of the crime provided by Article 326 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, based on the dominant position in the modern theory of criminal law with the help of physical, social and legal characteristics. It is pointed out that the subject of violation of the rules of microbiological or other biological agents or toxins usage is the mandatory feature of the crime. By the nature of the connection with the object, the subject of the investigated crime belongs to those for which the observance of a special legal regime is a condition for the normal functioning of public relations. Blanket disposition of the investigated criminal law norm led to recourse to other legal acts in order to establish the content of the subject of this crime. The generalization of the available normative definitions allowed to formulate the concept of “biological pathogens” in the meaning of the subject of crime under Article 326 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. In particular, the author includes bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, chlamydia, mycoplasmas, protozoa, fungi, helminths, prions, toxins (both natural and genetically modified). The properties of biological pathogens are revealed (infectivity, pathogenicity, virulence, mortality, incubation period of contagiousness, stability) which affect their potential usage as a means of destruction. It is alleged that the subject of this crime is not products derived from biological pathogens – any goods or products containing biological pathogens or produced with their use. It is concluded that there is no single current list of biological pathogens for humans, animals and plants in Ukraine, but there are currently five lists approved by legal-and-regulatory acts. Key words: subject of crime, biological pathogens, toxins, prions, genetically modified pathogens, strains of microorganisms, infectivity, virulence, contagiousness, incubation period, pathogenicity groups.

Emerging potato pathogens affecting food security in southern Africa: Recent research

Potato is a staple crop that contributes to food security and poverty alleviation in developing nations. Despite this, yields in developing nations are often unsustainably low, due to various biotic and abiotic factors that negatively affect production. Some of the most important biotic constraints are pathogens, many of which are disseminated by seed tubers. The lack of functional or formal seed certification systems in many southern African countries results in a continual increase in pathogen pressure. Short rotation cycles, poor plant nutrition and inefficient control measures exacerbate the crop production challenges faced by resource poor growers. In this review, we discuss five of the most important diseases on potatoes in southern Africa, namely late blight, bacterial wilt, soft rot / blackleg, powdery scab and zebra chip. Management options for small-scale growers are provided.
 Significance:
 
 Potato production in southern Africa is threatened by tuber-borne pathogens.
 Establishment and implementation of seed certification systems in southern African countries will increase potato yields and subsequently contribute to food security.
 Late blight, bacterial wilt, soft rot / blackleg and powdery scab are important emerging diseases on potatoes in southern Africa.
 Improved understanding of the biology of pathogens and the epidemiology of diseases will contributeto the management thereof.

Botrytis spp.: A Contemporary Perspective and Synthesis of Recent Scientific Developments of a Widespread Genus that Threatens Global Food Security.

This perspective presents a synopsis of the topics contained in the Phytopathology Pathogen Spotlight on Botrytis spp. causing gray mold, including pathogen biology and systematics, genomic characterization of new species, perspectives on genome editing, and fungicide resistance. A timely breakthrough to engineer host plant resistance against the gray mold fungus has been demonstrated in planta and may augment chemical controls in the near future. While B. cinerea has garnered much of the research attention, other economically important Botrytis spp. have been identified and characterized via morphological and genome-based approaches. Gray mold control is achieved primarily through fungicide applications but resistance to various chemical classes is a major concern that threatens global plant health and food security. In this issue, new information on molecular mechanism(s) of fungicide resistance and ways to manage control failures are presented. Finally, a significant leap in fundamental pathogen biology has been achieved via development of CRISPR/Cas9 to assess gene function in the fungus which likely will spawn new control mechanisms and facilitate gene discovery studies.

White rot diseases of sunflower and measures against them

This article presents the results of our experiments in the farm “Shonli Dior Fayz” in the Buka district of Tashkent region, the results of studies on the occurrence, spread of white rot disease in sunflower, symptoms of the fungus pathogen, the harm of the disease and the biological effectiveness of the applied fungicides.
 Due to the fact that none of the fungicides allowed for testing in the Republic of Uzbekistan was recommended for use against sunflower white rot disease, the recommended norms for other crops for diseases with white rot were tested.
 Based on the biology of pathogens, fungicides were used as control measures: Fundazol 50% sp. - 2.0 kg / ha. and Difen super 55% sp - 0.25 kg / ha. and their biological efficiencies are determined

A framework to evaluate climate effects on forest tree diseases

AbstractA conceptual framework for evaluation of climate effects on tree diseases is presented. Climate can exacerbate tree diseases by favouring pathogen biology, including reproduction and infection processes. Climatic conditions can also cause abiotic disease—direct stress or mortality when trees’ physiological limits are exceeded. When stress is sublethal, weakened trees may subsequently be killed by secondary organisms. To demonstrate climate's involvement in disease, associations between climatic conditions and disease expression provide the primary evidence of atmospheric involvement because experimentation is often impractical for mature trees. This framework tests spatial and temporal relationships of climate and disease at several scales to document climate effects, if any. The presence and absence of the disease can be contrasted with climate data and models at geographic scales: stand, regional and species range. Temporal variation in weather, climate and climate change is examined during onset, development and remission of the disease. Predisposing factors such as site and stand conditions can modify the climate effects of some diseases, especially at finer spatial scales. Spatially explicit climate models that display temperature and precipitation or derivative models such as snow and drought stress provide useful data, and however, information on disease extent at different spatial scales and monitoring through time are often incomplete. The framework can be used to overcome limitations in other disease causality approaches, such as Koch's postulates, and allow for the integration of vegetation, pathogen and environmental data into causality determinations.

Information: a missing component in understanding and mitigating social epidemics

Social epidemics or behaviorally based non-communicable diseases are becoming an increasingly important problem in developed countries including the United States. It is the aim of our paper to propose a previously understudied aspect of the spread of social epidemics, the role of information in both causing and mitigating social epidemics. In this paper, we ask, can information be harmful, contagious, and a causal factor in social epidemics? In the spread of biological epidemics, the causal agents are biological pathogens such as bacteria or viruses. We propose that in the spread of social epidemics, one of the causal agents is harmful information, which is increasing exponentially in the age of the internet. We ground our idea in the concept of the meme and define the concept of an infopathogen as harmful information that can spread or intensify a social epidemic. Second, we ask, what are the best tools to understand the role of information in the spread of social epidemics? The epidemiological triad that includes a host, agents (and vectors), and the environment is extended into a quad by including information agents. The quad includes the role of information technologies as vectors and the impact of the social environment. The “life cycles” of pathogens in biological epidemics and infopathogens in social epidemics are compared, along with mitigations suggested by the epidemiological quad. Challenges to the theory of infopathogens, including the complexities associated with the spread of memes and the role of behavior in the spread of epidemics are discussed. Implications of the theory including the classification of harmfulness, the freedom of speech, and the treatment of infected individuals are also considered. We believe the application of the epidemiological quad provides insights into social epidemics and potential mitigations. Finally, we stress that infopathogens are only part of social epidemic development; susceptible hosts, a favorable environment, and availability of physical agents are all also required.

Cross-Reactive Antibody Against Human Coronavirus OC43 Spike Protein Correlates with Disease Severity in COVID-19 Patients: A Retrospective Study

Background: Seasonal human coronaviruses (HCoVs) including HCoV-229E, -OC43, -NL63 and -HKU1 are widely spreading in global human populations. However, the relevance of humoral response against seasonal HCoVs to COVID-19 pathogenesis is elusive.Methods: We profiled the temporal changes of IgG antibodies against spike (S; S-IgG) proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and seasonal HCoVs in 838 plasma samples collected from 344 COVID-19 patients. We tested the antigenic cross-reactivity of S protein between SARS-CoV-2 and seasonal HCoVs and evaluated the correlations between HCoV-OC43 S-IgG antibody and disease severity in COVID-19 patients.Findings: SARS-CoV-2 S-IgG titers mounted until days 22–28, whereas HCoV-OC43 antibody titers increased until days 15–21 and then plateaued until day 46. However, IgG antibody titers against HCoV-NL63, -229E, and -HKU1 showed no significant increasing. A two-way cross-reactivity was identified between SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV-OC43. Neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 were not detected in healthy controls who were positive for HCoV-OC43 S-IgG. HCoV-OC43 S-IgG titers were significantly higher in patients with severe disease than those in mild/moderate patients at days 1–21 post symptom onset (PSO). Higher levels of HCoV-OC43 S-IgG were also observed in patients requiring mechanical ventilation and the elderly. At days 1–10 PSO, HCoV-OC43 S-IgG titers correlated to disease severity in all age groups, and to fatality in over 60-year group.Interpretation: Our data indicate that there exist a humoral cross-reactive response between HCoV-OC43 and SARS-CoV-2. The cross-reactive HCoV-OC43 S-IgG antibody is not protective against SARS-CoV-2, but may be a risk factor for the severity and adverse outcome of COVID-19.Funding Statement: This study was funded in part by the National Major Science & Technology Project for Control and Prevention of Major Infectious Diseases in China (2017ZX10204401, 2018ZX10734404), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences (2016-I2M-1–014, 2018-I2M-1-003, 2020-I2M-1-001, 2020-I2M-CoV19-005), Natural Science Foundation of China (82041011/H0104), and National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFA0707600). Declaration of Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.Ethics Approval Statement: This study was approved by the Ethical Review Board of Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, Infectious Disease Hospital of Heilongjiang Province (Harbin), and Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences. Written informed consent was obtained from each healthy volunteer and COVID-19 patients in cohort 4. Written informed consents from the remaining patients were waived in light of the emerging infectious disease of high public health relevance.

Biology, Dispersal and Management of Coffee Berry Disease: A Review

Colletotrichum spp. are the most important plant pathogenic fungi affecting tissues of leaves, flowers, fruit, stems and crown parts of different crops. They are predominantly found in tropical and subtropical rejoins of humid and sub-humid areas. From these, coffee berry disease (CBD) caused by the fungus Colletotrichum kahawae which is one of the predominant challenges in coffee production. Hence, this review is valuable in providing better insights into the extent spread, and biology of CBD pathogen from different findings and helpful for the selection of better management strategies for this disease. The slow growth form of C. kahawae is varied metabolically by its inability to use either citrate or titrate as a sole carbon source, and conidial production, dispersion and germination takes place in the presence of moisture. Also, the conidia from mummified berries and twig barks disseminated by rain splashes are the primary inoculums sources. Also, spore movement is down ward in tree canopies with the guide of water movement. Passive vectors that can carry viable spores like man, insects, vehicles and birds assist long distance movement, and free movement of coffee planting materials from CBD infected origin fasten frequent distribution of the disease. In spite of little attention received at the early stage of its emergence, African coffee growers soon observed a rapid dissemination throughout important Arabica coffee growing areas which causes 75% losses in Kenya within short time of its appearance. Moreover the impact due to this disease can cause100% losses in the area where effective management options like cultural practices, h ost plant resistance , biological control and chemical control are not applied. So, in order to improve the income gained from coffee sector especially in the areas where it highly produced and offer as essential economic source like Ethiopia needs great emphasis of disease diagnosis as well. Keywords: Coffea arabica, Disease management, Disease symptoms, Epidemiology, Life cycle DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/10-20-03 Publication date: October 31 st 2020

Diversity of the Genomes and Neurotoxins of Strains of Clostridium botulinum Group I and Clostridium sporogenes Associated with Foodborne, Infant and Wound Botulism.

Clostridium botulinum Group I and Clostridium sporogenes are closely related bacteria responsible for foodborne, infant and wound botulism. A comparative genomic study with 556 highly diverse strains of C. botulinum Group I and C. sporogenes (including 417 newly sequenced strains) has been carried out to characterise the genetic diversity and spread of these bacteria and their neurotoxin genes. Core genome single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis revealed two major lineages; C. botulinum Group I (most strains possessed botulinum neurotoxin gene(s) of types A, B and/or F) and C. sporogenes (some strains possessed a type B botulinum neurotoxin gene). Both lineages contained strains responsible for foodborne, infant and wound botulism. A new C. sporogenes cluster was identified that included five strains with a gene encoding botulinum neurotoxin sub-type B1. There was significant evidence of horizontal transfer of botulinum neurotoxin genes between distantly related bacteria. Population structure/diversity have been characterised, and novel associations discovered between whole genome lineage, botulinum neurotoxin sub-type variant, epidemiological links to foodborne, infant and wound botulism, and geographic origin. The impact of genomic and physiological variability on the botulism risk has been assessed. The genome sequences are a valuable resource for future research (e.g., pathogen biology, evolution of C. botulinum and its neurotoxin genes, improved pathogen detection and discrimination), and support enhanced risk assessments and the prevention of botulism.

A Conditional Protein Degradation System To Study Essential Gene Function in Cryptosporidium parvum.

Cryptosporidium spp., protozoan parasites, are a leading cause of global diarrhea-associated morbidity and mortality in young children and immunocompromised individuals. The limited efficacy of the only available drug and lack of vaccines make it challenging to treat and prevent cryptosporidiosis. Therefore, the identification of essential genes and understanding their biological functions are critical for the development of new therapies. Currently, there is no genetic tool available to investigate the function of essential genes in Cryptosporidium spp. Here, we describe the development of the first conditional system in Cryptosporidium parvum Our system utilizes the Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase degradation domain (DDD) and the stabilizing compound trimethoprim (TMP) for conditional regulation of protein levels in the parasite. We tested our system on the calcium-dependent protein kinase-1 (CDPK1), a leading drug target in C. parvum By direct knockout strategy, we establish that cdpk1 is refractory to gene deletion, indicating its essentiality for parasite survival. Using CRISPR/Cas9, we generated transgenic parasites expressing CDPK1 with an epitope tag, and localization studies indicate its expression during asexual parasite proliferation. We then genetically engineered C. parvum to express CDPK1 tagged with DDD. We demonstrate that TMP can regulate CDPK1 levels in this stable transgenic parasite line, thus revealing the critical role of this kinase in parasite proliferation. Further, these transgenic parasites show TMP-mediated regulation of CDPK1 levels in vitro and an increased sensitivity to kinase inhibitor upon conditional knockdown. Overall, this study reports the development of a powerful conditional system that can be used to study essential genes in CryptosporidiumIMPORTANCECryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis are leading pathogens responsible for diarrheal disease (cryptosporidiosis) and deaths in infants and children below 5 years of age. There are no effective treatment options and no vaccine for cryptosporidiosis. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify essential gene targets and uncover their biological function to accelerate the development of new and effective anticryptosporidial drugs. Current genetic tool allows targeted disruption of gene function but leads to parasite lethality if the gene is essential for survival. In this study, we have developed a genetic tool for conditional degradation of proteins in Cryptosporidium spp., thus allowing us to study the function of essential genes. Our conditional system expands the molecular toolbox for Cryptosporidium, and it will help us to understand the biology of this important human diarrheal pathogen for the development of new drugs and vaccines.

Faba Bean Gall (Olpidium viciae K.) as a Priority Biosecurity Threat for Producing Faba Bean in Ethiopia: Current Status and Future Perspectives

The diploid cool-season legume species, faba bean (Vicia faba L.), is one of the vital pulses for the people in the world as it maintains the sustainability of agriculture and provides nutrient-rich grains. Biotic and abiotic stresses are, however, challenging the faba bean production in many countries. The foliar diseases of faba bean are among the major constraints for the production and productivity of faba bean. Recently, a new foliar disease “Faba bean gall” caused by plant debris and soil-borne pathogen (Olpidium viciae K.) is rapidly spreading and causing high yield losses in Ethiopia. This review paper presents the distribution, impact, epidemiology, and biology of faba bean gall pathogen and principally illustrates how the application and investigation of the various diseases’ management approaches such as avoiding crop residues, crop rotation, intercropping, use of elicitors to induce host resistance, use of resistant genotypes, bioagents, compost teas, plant extracts, and lastly use of chemical fungicides could be important to control the faba bean gall disease underlying in faba bean.

The kidney, COVID-19, and the chemokine network: an intriguing trio.

On December 30th 2019, some patients with pneumonia of unknown etiology were reported in the Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases (ProMED), a program run by the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID), hypothesized to be related to subjects who had had contact with the seafood market in Wuhan, China. Chinese authorities instituted an emergency agency aimed at identifying the source of infection and potential biological pathogens. It was subsequently named by the World Committee on Virus Classification as 2019-nCoV (2019-novel coronavirus) or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). A number of studies have demonstrated that 2019-nCoV and the SARS-CoV shared the same cell entry receptor named angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). This is expressed in human tissues, not only in the respiratory epithelia, but also in the small intestines, heart, liver, and kidneys. Here, we examine the most recent findings on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on kidney diseases, mainly acute kidney injury, and the potential role of the chemokine network.

Signals Orchestrating Peripheral Nerve Repair.

The peripheral nervous system has retained through evolution the capacity to repair and regenerate after assault from a variety of physical, chemical, or biological pathogens. Regeneration relies on the intrinsic abilities of peripheral neurons and on a permissive environment, and it is driven by an intense interplay among neurons, the glia, muscles, the basal lamina, and the immune system. Indeed, extrinsic signals from the milieu of the injury site superimpose on genetic and epigenetic mechanisms to modulate cell intrinsic programs. Here, we will review the main intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms allowing severed peripheral axons to re-grow, and discuss some alarm mediators and pro-regenerative molecules and pathways involved in the process, highlighting the role of Schwann cells as central hubs coordinating multiple signals. A particular focus will be provided on regeneration at the neuromuscular junction, an ideal model system whose manipulation can contribute to the identification of crucial mediators of nerve re-growth. A brief overview on regeneration at sensory terminals is also included.