Passenger Transport Sector Research Articles

Ecological Pressure of Carbon Footprint in Passenger Transport: Spatio-Temporal Changes and Regional Disparities

Passenger transport has become a significant producer of carbon emissions in China, thus strongly contributing to climate change. In this paper, we first propose a model of ecological pressure of the carbon footprint in passenger transport (EPcfpt). In the model, the EPcfpt values of all the provinces and autonomous regions of China are calculated and analyzed during the period of 2006–2015. For the outlier EPcfpt values of Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin, the research areas are classified into two scenarios: the first scenario (all the provinces and autonomous regions) and the second scenario (not including Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin). The global spatial autocorrelation analysis of the first scenario shows that the EPcfpt might be randomly distributed, while it shows positive spatial autocorrelation in the second scenario. Furthermore, we carry out the local spatial autocorrelation analysis of the second scenario, and find that the low aggregation areas are the most common type and are mainly located in the west of China. Then the disparities in EPcfpt between China’s Eight Comprehensive Economic Zones are further analyzed. Finally, we put forward a number of policy recommendations in relation to the spatio-temporal changes and the regional disparities of EPcfpt in China. This study provides related references for proposing effective policy measures to reduce the ecological pressure of carbon emissions from the passenger transport sector.

Low world oil prices: A chance to reform fuel subsidies and promote public transport? A case study for South Africa

Since the fall in world oil prices in June 2014, the economic and political settings for fossil fuel subsidy reforms have changed. As in many developing economies, in South Africa oil price subsidies are criticized as an inefficient policy instrument because they hamper economic growth, contradict objectives of climate change mitigation and mainly benefit high income households which can afford to own a car.Public transportation services are the mobility option for poorer South African households, but are often unavailable and unaffordable due to insufficient governmental subsidization. Thus, the inefficient fuel subsidies and the insufficient subsidies for public transportation have complementary adverse effects on inequity with respect to the welfare of poor households and their mobility.In this study, a computable general equilibrium model simulates the decrease in world oil prices, the reduction in fuel subsidies and two options for reallocation of these subsidies to support the transport sector: either as consumer price support or as subsidies to production in the passenger transport sector. The simulations indicate improved affordability and availability of public transportation services and clearly show positive impacts for the economy, unemployment and household income. They also give some clues on how to improve the transport system in South Africa to pre-empt the situation when oil prices pick up again.

Passenger transportation sector gasoline consumption due to friction in Southeast Asian countries

Energy demand in the transportation sector across Southeast Asian (SEA) region is rapidly increasing. This poses a challenge to the sector in mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions because of its heavy reliance on fossil fuels. Decarbonisation efforts tend to focus on the use of low carbon energy, often neglecting frictional losses in vehicles. Therefore, the study aims to determine the fuel cost savings and the environmental impact from reduction of frictional energy losses in passenger cars and motorcycles for selected SEA countries. An energy analysis framework is proposed; estimating a total of USD 42.6 billion/year is wasted through fuel energy loss in moving these vehicles in the selected SEA countries, emitting 109 Mtonne/year of CO2. By implementing relevant tribological improvement strategies, fuel energy savings of USD 18.3 billion/year could be achieved, leading to 46.6 Mtonne/year of CO2 emissions reduction. This level of CO2 emissions reduction, obtained via friction reduction, can contribute between 0.8% and 1.9% towards the committed GHG reduction targets for the selected SEA countries by 2030. It is emphasised that combined effort, from vehicle manufacturers and end-users, is required in implementing relevant friction reduction strategies to avoid backlash from inappropriate use of these strategies.

Najbolja praksa kao realan i relativan uzor neefikasnim jedinicama - multiskupovna DEA analiza

The direction in research of the efficiency of decision-making units in this paper is an efficient→multi-inefficient→multi-efficient unit. So, the general purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) identification of 'hidden' inefficient units within a multi-set, among efficient units of the basic set, and (2) achieving the efficiency in such identified inefficient units. This indicates (warns of!) a negative efficient→inefficient process, so as to provide a timely response and thereby prevent multi-inefficiency. The specific goal is to assess the efficiency of the Serbian railway passenger stations, first within the basic set of the Passenger Transport Section Belgrade, then in the multi-set of the Passenger Transport Sections, and finally in the superset, the Passenger Transport Sector. This is achieved by means of the multi-set DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis) method, which is a system for: (i) relative efficiency assessment, in the first iteration, through the basic set analysis, and (ii) decrease in efficiency of potentially inefficient units, in subsequent iterations, through the multi-set analysis. The result is that the efficient stations Požarevac and Pančevo Bridge are at the initial level, and the (newly) efficient Požarevac, Novi Sad and Inđija at the final level. The best practice station remains the Požarevac Station, which is multi-efficient, and therefore the role model to inefficient stations. The conclusion is drawn that the solution resulting from the multi-set DEA analysis is more realistic, and less relative, because it applies to a wider analysed set of decision-making units, i.e., a larger coverage when considering the issue. This is important for fitting into the new era of growing globalization, and therefore our recommendation is the integral multi-set, as opposed to the individual single set approach.

Future energy use and CO2 emissions of urban passenger transport in China: A travel behavior and urban form based approach

Work on comparing cities in terms of their transport energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the urban passenger transport sector has rarely been done using detailed travel activity data that takes into account city level differences in terms of economic development, population, and urban form. A personal activity based approach is necessary to better reflect travel behavior change results from different social, economic, urban form, technical, and transportation policy situations in the future. The present study extends the existing activity, modal share, energy intensity, fuel/carbon intensity (ASIF) modeling framework by disaggregating travel activity into key structural components and city-specific factors for 288 prefectural level cities in China. Testable econometric modeling systems were built to link mode split and mode specific travel distances with local economic and urban form characteristics in four different population sizes and two urban form types, based on 187 travel surveys in 108 Chinese cities in the past two decades. Scenarios of energy use and carbon emissions between 2010 (baseline) and 2050 were developed. Results showed that in 2010 urban passenger road transport in China generated 396 Mt CO2 emissions and per capita urban passenger transport energy use increased as city size expanded. By 2030, under business as usual scenario assumptions, energy use in the urban passenger transport sector comprised 23.2 Mt of gasoline, 1.72 Mt of diesel, 3.36 billion M3 of natural gas, and 0.62 billion kWh of electricity. While national policies targeting travel behavior change have been shown to mitigate emissions to some extent, urban transport policies targeted at specific spatial and temporal drivers of energy demand and emissions may be more effective in meeting policy goals. Short-term policies that promote car-pooling and ride sharing and medium-term policies that increase the cost of driving and promote public transport (such as transit oriented development, walkable neighborhood design, and parking pricing/restraint in city centers) help stabilize carbon emissions over the long term. However, the decision of building polycentric cities might have less significant impact on mitigating urban passenger transport in big cities. Moreover, large-scale promotion of electric vehicles should be designed from a long-term perspective rather than from a short-term one to achieve balanced carbon emissions in regard to the decarbonization process of electricity generation in China.

A New Labour Ecosystem in the Sharing Economy: A Platform for Growth?

The role of the traditional labour market is being challenged by globalisation and modern technology, particularly the unprecedented and generalised use of smartphones. Online platforms facilitating the on-demand economy are radically changing the prospects for the jobs of the future, which will be less regulated and more inclusive. This paper focuses on online ridesharing platforms, particularly Uber as international market leader, and their potential for combating social inequality and developing the transport industry. Online ridesharing platforms assign private drivers to rides booked and paid for by passengers through an app, using their credit card or PayPal account. The platform’s drivers work as freelance business owners or “moonlight” workers to top-up the income from their regular work. Among these ridesharing service providers are amateur riders who were unable to cope with the tight restrictions of a heavily regulated professional passenger transportation sector, high priced licences, inefficient work-life balance policies and lack of safety guarantees. These barriers to the professional passenger transportation services increase unemployment, and they increase the price of personal transportation for consumers by limiting the market. On-demand ridesharing platform services have been heavily criticised for infringements of workers’ rights. Such arguments are based on the traditional employer-employee relationship, which is being reshaped in these Web 2.0 times. Debate rages as to whether the right to statutory working hours and the right to a stable work site (among others) should still be enforced today. Supporters argue that if pension allowances and work injury benefits must still be granted, this may be done if such platforms are given space to thrive. It is argued that the conditions offered by platforms to drivers encourage entrepreneurship across all segments of society and foster the decentralisation of economic growth. On-demand ridesharing platforms adapt drivers’ income to the market, providing for prime time pricing to meet increased demand. By allowing a fully flexible schedule, they promote work-life balance, and by integrating technology they ensure a more efficient provision of services and a safer one too, with passenger registration, money-free rides and GPS locations an integral part of the operation. This paper stresses the potential of on-demand ridesharing platforms to combat social inequality. Drivers who are excluded from traditional systems due to restrictive language requirements, for example, can openly access these platforms in an intuitive way, often with no other requirements than a driving licence and a reliable car. On-demand ridesharing platforms also absorb certain groups that the labour market tends to resist, such as older workers, for whom ridesharing may top-up their pensions, as well as increase social participation and reduce isolation. On-demand ridesharing platforms have the potential to create economic growth, provided the regulatory burden is reduced. Active participation of citizens and stakeholders in the lawmaking process would ensure that these platforms are aligned with the Better Regulation agenda of the Commission and its strategic policies, while also helping to create conditions for such entrepreneurial operations to thrive.

Study and Simulation of a Hydraulic Hybrid Powertrain

In the agricultural and work machine sectors, the hydro-mechanical transmission competes with traditional mechanical transmission; a tool to improve its competitiveness is the hybridization. The hydraulic branch of the transmission may be integrated with two accumulators which allow the storage of energy derived from braking; the presence of the two hydraulic units facilitates this solution: the hydraulic motor acts as a pump during the braking and as a motor during the starts of the vehicle. This solution appears to be interesting also from the costs point of view, because it does not require a high-level technology. For this reason, in the present work, the hybrid hydro-mechanical transmission is studied with the aim of pointing out its potential for the urban passenger transport sector. At first, a hydro-mechanical transmission for an urban bus is designed; then, the same transmission is modified adding the components for the hydraulic hybridization. After that, the two vehicles is modelled and simulated using the AMESim code, and, finally, compared to each other in terms of energy savings.

Energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions of urban passenger transport in the Internet era: A case study of Beijing

The transport sector accounts for a large proportion of energy demand and environmental emissions and is growing rapidly. The city is the hub of modern human life and the urban transport sector is developing fast. Specifically, in the Internet era, the development of public transport has brought new challenges and opportunities to urban passenger transport. Thus, research on the energy demand and environmental emissions of the urban transport sector is significant and timely. This paper takes Beijing’s public transport as an example and applies the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) model to analyze the energy demand and the main greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under different scenarios during the period 2016–2030. The results show that: 1) if the government fails to guide the development of passenger transport appropriately, its energy demand and GHG emissions will rise rapidly and under the baseline scenario, the energy demand and emissions in 2030 are about 1.8 times those oft 2015; 2) the scenarios of developing public transport and transport sharing have a significant effect of energy saving and emission reduction and in 2030 the energy demand and GHG emissions falls by 25%–30% compared with that of the baseline scenario, so the combination of public transport and transport sharing is a wise choice for the low carbon development of the passenger transport sector in Beijing; 3) scenarios of easing road congestion and new-energy and clean-energy vehicle development have huge potential for energy saving and emission reduction, particularly the internal adjustment of the energy structure in the scenario of developing new-energy and clean-energy vehicles, which can greatly reduce the demand for traditional energy sources and reduce GHG emissions. This paper illustrates the development trends of energy demand and GHG emissions in Beijing’s passenger transport sector under the scenarios of transport sharing development and traditional development in the Internet era, providing a basis for decision making.

Are Chinese Green Transport Policies Effective? A New Perspective from Direct Pollution Rebound Effect, and Empirical Evidence From the Road Transport Sector

Air pollution has become a serious challenge in China. Emissions from motor vehicles have been found to be one main sources of air pollution. Although the Chinese government has undertaken numerous green policies to mitigate harmful emissions from road transport sector, it is still uncertain for both policy makers and researchers to know whether the policies are effective in the short and long terms. We propose a new concept of “pollution rebound effect” (PRE) to estimate the effectiveness of green traffic policies. We estimate direct air PRE as a measure of the effectiveness of the policies of reducing air pollution from the transport sector based on time-series data from the period 1986–2014. We find that the short-term direct air PRE is −0.4105, and the corresponding long-run PRE is −0.246. The negative results indicate that the direct air PRE does not exist in the road passenger transport sector in China, both in the short term and in the long term during the period 1986–2014. This implies that the Chinese green transport policies are effective in terms of harmful emissions reduction in the transport sector. This research, to the best of our knowledge, is the first attempt to quantify the effectiveness of the green transport policies in the transitional period that China is currently undergoing.

Tourism Development Potential in an Insular Territory: The Case of Ribeira Grande in the Azores

The Autonomous Region of the Azores is one of the most sustainable destinations in the world. Being an archipelago comprised of nine small islands, quality and sustainability are critical features in the tourism sector, inducing the need for thorough and technical strategic development processes. Ribeira Grande is an importantmunicipality in the Azores, which envisioned tourism as a strategic sector to develop when the partial liberalization of the air passenger transport sector occurred in 2015. However, this destination had little tourism maturity and competitiveness and required some structural planning work. The development of a strategic plan for tourism forthe municipality of Ribeira Grande, including the selection of tourism products, is explained in detail in this article, which highlights the main challenges and results of the process.

STUDYING IMPACTS OF USING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM OF COUNTRY FROM ECONOMIC STANDPOINT

In recent years and in developed societies, transportation engineers together with specialists in telecommunication and communication, electronic, computer and other fields have created Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) by utilizing the facilities that at the present time are known to be results of IT; ITS has a suitable and desirable infrastructure to realize and access the specified following goals. Information technology makes the corporations to use their resources and institutions in the best possible way. As investment in information technology capital for investment in capital stock is considered an ever increasing share, to understand how this investment can be compensated is also important. In the present paper impacts of information technology on transportation sector and economical aspects of it especially its impacts on the value added of transportation of provinces in sub-sector of passenger carrying was studied by using method of unbalance panel data and data gathered from 2012 until 2016. Impacts of information technology on the value added of passenger transport sector were analyzed with two types of total variables and separated variables. Results showed that investment in other than information technology, human capital, rate of population growth, investment in information technology, expenditure and investment in hardware and software, have positive and significant effect on the value added of passenger transport sector.

Biofuels or hybrid vehicles? A scenario perspective in China

ABSTRACTRapid growth of passenger vehicles considerably increases greenhouse gas emission and fuel consumption in China. This paper thereby intends to analyze the potentials of the mitigation of energy use and environmental emission in China’s road passenger transportation sector by assessing two available approaches, i.e. biofuel and hybrid vehicle strategies. It was found that biofuel is effective for emission reduction in only three subsubsectors. A synthesis strategy is thereby proposed to meet the state policy goals.

VAT-induced Distortions in the Passenger Transport System in the European Union: Assessment and Options for Reform

This paper is based on a study by the same authors recently published by the European Commission. It provides an economic assessment of the impact of current VAT regimes on passenger transport in the EU, and the likely effects of alternative regimes.After a review of the features of the passenger transport industry as they relate to VAT, the paper identifies and assesses a number of distortions arising from unequal VAT treatment of operators or passengers. Using a series of transport-related econometric models it then evaluates a number of changes in the VAT regime that could address those distortions.The main conclusion is that the distortions introduced by the rather byzantine current VAT system are small- or medium-sized.For the distortions on output (passenger demand), a large part of the explanation of their small impact is in the low ‘pass through’ of changes in costs to changes in fares, and the low system-wide elasticities of demand; for input distortions, the main explanation is in the ability of operators to reclaim VAT incurred on inputs, so the only cost distortion is that some operators incur additional financing costs between when VAT is paid and when it is rebated. These costs are small because of the short time between payment and reimbursement and the current low interest rates on that financing.The paper identifies one set of measures that addresses output distortions deriving from different VAT rates and place of supply rules and another addresses input distortions.The paper also provides valuable insights for tax administrations. It reveals an enormous potential of the application of VAT in the passenger transport sector with regard to generating revenue, and the small impact of applying simpler VAT rates.We can conclude that a simplified and harmonised application of VAT on all passenger modes, markets and all member states (aimed at elimination or reducing the distortions of the current VAT regime) would have only a small impact on both operators and passengers.

Who rebounds in the private transport sector? A comparative analysis between Beijing and Tokyo

This study explores the direct rebound effect, which indicates the degree of increase in travel demand caused by the increasing vehicle efficiency in the private passenger transport sector. Different from the usual effect, here the direct rebound effect is not assumed to be the same for the entire population. To determine when rebound occurs and who is suffering, two types of triggers, which may lead to different rebound effects among the population, are investigated: vehicle efficiency and travel demand. The quantile regression method is adopted to measure the rebound effect and differentiate it with respect to vehicle efficiency and travel demand. Considering that the rebound effect might have diverse performance in different cities, a comparative analysis between Beijing and Tokyo is conducted. Drawing on the data collected in a household energy consumption survey in Beijing and Tokyo in 2009, the models are estimated and the results reveal significant heterogeneity of the direct rebound effect both in Beijing and Tokyo, but with a much more complicated form in Beijing. For travelers in Beijing, rebound only occurs to those people whose cars are less efficient than 15–18 km/L, and the magnitude of the rebound effect is between 31.8% and 60.2%, varying across travelers with different travel demands. In comparison, in Tokyo, only travelers with low and medium kilometers traveled have the rebound effect, and the effect is inversely related to their travel demand, ranging between 17.1% and 92.3%. The above-identified inter-city and intra-city difference in the rebound effect could contribute to the population and a spatially specific policy scheme in practice.

Direct energy rebound effect for road passenger transport in China: A dynamic panel quantile regression approach

The transport sector appears a main energy consumer in China and plays a significant role in energy conservation. Improving energy efficiency proves an effective way to reduce energy consumption in transport sector, whereas its effectiveness may be affected by the rebound effect. This paper proposes a dynamic panel quantile regression model to estimate the direct energy rebound effect for road passenger transport in the whole country, eastern, central and western China, respectively, based on the data of 30 provinces from 2003 to 2012. The empirical results reveal that, first of all, the direct rebound effect does exist for road passenger transport and on the whole country, the short-term and long-term direct rebound effects are 25.53% and 26.56% on average, respectively. Second, the direct rebound effect for road passenger transport in central and eastern China tends to decrease, increase and then decrease again, whereas that in western China decreases and then increases, with the increasing passenger kilometers. Finally, when implementing energy efficiency policy in road passenger transport sector, the effectiveness of energy conservation in western China proves much better than that in central China overall, while the effectiveness in central China is relatively better than that in eastern China.

Co-benefits of low carbon passenger transport actions in Indian cities: Case study of Ahmedabad

Rising population, income and urbanization are increasing urban passenger transport demand in India. Energy and emissions intensities associated with conventional transport are no longer sustainable vis-a-vis energy security, air quality and climate change. Cities are seeking transport roadmaps that jointly mitigate these risks. Roadmaps vary across cities, but approach to delineate actions is common: (i) ‘representative vision’ that articulates long-term goals, (ii) methods for comparative scenarios assessment, and (iii) quantification of co-benefits to prioritize actions. This paper illustrates application of quantitative modeling to assess development and environmental co-benefits for Ahmedabad city. The paper constructs two transport scenarios spanning till 2035. The bifurcating themes are: (i) Business-as-Usual (BAU) and Low Carbon Scenario (LCS). The quantitative assessment using Extended Snapshot (ExSS) Model shows that transport activity shall result in four-fold increase in energy demand under BAU from 2010 to 2035. Three key contributors to CO2 mitigation under LCS in merit order are: (i) fuel switch, including decarbonized electricity, (ii) modal shift, and (iii) substitution of travel demand. Scenarios analysis shows that LCS improves energy security by reducing oil demand and also delivers air quality co-benefits – reducing 74% NOx and 83% PM2.5 from the passenger transport sector compared to BAU in 2035. Finally, the paper argues that cities in developing countries can leverage carbon finance to develop sustainable and low carbon mobility plans that prevent adverse infrastructure and behavioral lock-ins and prompt low carbon development.

Mitigation of CO2 emissions from the road passenger transport sector in Bahrain

There is much optimism that the 2015 Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention will yield an agreement on mitigation of climate change, to become effective in 2020. In this context, Bahrain represents a developing country with insufficient data to assess mitigation opportunities: its per capita carbon emissions rank among the world’s highest, yet there has been no research on the reduction potential of its rapidly growing transport sector. We examine this reduction potential and the costs of various mitigation measures and, further, explore barriers and the view of policymakers and experts. Potential benefits of combined mitigation scenarios are also identified based on their acceptability. We adopt a modified participatory method to develop the scenarios, using the long-range energy alternative planning (LEAP) modelling system, and find that an integrated policy approach can deliver a 23 % reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, costing 108 United States dollars per avoided metric tonne, with politically acceptable scenarios. Better performance, however, would require less acceptable approaches. These findings are significant for decision-making in Bahrain and other Gulf Cooperation Council countries; national target preparation and the setting of fuel economy standards should be begun promptly. We offer lessons to other developing countries on the timely regulation of technical specifications and numbers of passenger vehicles. Participatory approaches to the assessment of mitigation measures can advance environmentally effective, economically feasible and politically acceptable scenarios. The global community can use these results to provide necessary technical and financial assistance to developing countries.

Inter-city passenger transport in larger urban agglomeration area: emissions and health impacts

Emissions from road transport have significant impacts on climate change and air quality. However, few studies focused on long-term emission changes, long-range passenger transport of air pollutants, especially, neglecting how those cities with larger urban agglomeration area interact with each other. This article fills the gap to evaluate interacting emissions from inter-city passenger transport and related PM2.5 health impacts, also to assess possible development in passenger transport sector in long-term post fossil period. Shenyang Metropolitan Area is chosen as a case in which include eight neighboring cities, covering 23.6 million inhabitants. Results show that total air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions from urban agglomeration area passenger transport reached 265 kt and 17 kt in 2012, respectively, and may result in about 170 deaths per year. Importantly, the interacting emissions are closely related with the local economic development of destination city, meaning that interactions between each city in an urban agglomeration area are mostly based on economic cooperation. In order to mitigate and adapt to such emissions, different scenarios were set up for policy making and implementing. Comparing with business-as-usual scenario, optimal scenarios with the promotion of hybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and ethanol vehicles can lead to less air pollutants and GHGs. Finally, appropriate policies for supporting the application of the optimal scenario were raised and discussed so that policy-makers can seek an innovative pathway to both mitigate and adapt to climate change and improve air quality in transport sector of an urban agglomeration area.

China's transportation energy consumption and CO2 emissions from a global perspective

Rapidly growing energy demand from China's transportation sector in the last two decades have raised concerns over national energy security, local air pollution, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and there is broad consensus that China's transportation sector will continue to grow in the coming decades. This paper explores the future development of China's transportation sector in terms of service demands, final energy consumption, and CO2 emissions, and their interactions with global climate policy. This study develops a detailed China transportation energy model that is nested in an integrated assessment model—Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM)—to evaluate the long-term energy consumption and CO2 emissions of China's transportation sector from a global perspective. The analysis suggests that, without major policy intervention, future transportation energy consumption and CO2 emissions will continue to rapidly increase and the transportation sector will remain heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Although carbon price policies may significantly reduce the sector's energy consumption and CO2 emissions, the associated changes in service demands and modal split will be modest, particularly in the passenger transport sector. The analysis also suggests that it is more difficult to decarbonize the transportation sector than other sectors of the economy, primarily owing to its heavy reliance on petroleum products.

How a rapid modal convergence into a universal automated taxi service could be the future for local passenger transport

The world is changing rapidly. Yet a common assumption is that cars, buses, and taxis will remain the dominant local passenger transport modes in the coming decades. This concept paper draws on literature sources and on discussions with industry stakeholders to look anew at the local passenger transport sector in the light of broader societal trends to suggest an alternative future, and to offer insights to practitioners and policy-makers. The paper finds that the traditional modes of car, bus and taxi are slowly beginning to lose market share to intermediate modes such as shared taxis, lift-sharing schemes, demand-responsive transport services and car clubs whilst numerous technological and market trends are combining to accelerate this process of ‘modal convergence’. Taken together, these trends could revolutionise how we move about, with one possible outcome being the emergence of a single dominant passenger mode of an automated universal taxi system or dial-a-pod.