Electric Passenger Vehicles Research Articles

Sustainable Energy Management in Electric Vehicles Through a Fuzzy Logic-Based Strategy

The purpose of this study was to develop a fuzzy logic controller (FLC)-based energy management strategy for battery electric vehicles that enables them to reduce their energy consumption and carbon emission levels without sacrificing their performance. An electric vehicle model was developed in MATLAB/Simulink using a virtual battery and validated with real-world driving tests to save time and money. An in-depth investigation is conducted on both virtual and real vehicles to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed energy management strategy. This study shows that by using FLC-based energy management, an energy consumption advantage of 9.16% can be achieved while maintaining acceptable performance levels in real-world driving conditions. This advantage results in significant reductions annually: 1044.09 tons of CO2 emissions, USD 164,770.65 in savings for electric bus lines, and 5079 battery cycles. For European passenger electric vehicles, this corresponds to 405,657.6 tons of CO2 emissions reduced, USD 64,017,840 saved, and 5.071 battery cycles per vehicle. This strategy not only enhances energy efficiency but also contributes to long-term sustainability in public transportation systems, particularly for electric bus fleets, which play a critical role in urban mobility.

МОДЕЛЬНЫЙ РЯД УНИФИЦИРОВАННЫХ СИЛОВЫХ ЭЛЕКТРОПРИВОДОВ ДЛЯ КОММЕРЧЕСКОГО ЭЛЕКТРОТРАНСПОРТА

The article considers the creation of a model range of unified electric power drives for commercial electric vehicles. The peculiarity of the work is the realization of the concept of reducing the cost of production of electromechanical power units (EMPU) of electric vehicles by unification of units and components included in its composition. When forming a number of unified electric power drives, the components were subjected to a set of design, layout, technological and economic requirements ensuring the production on their basis of cargo or passenger electric vehicles with gross weight from 3.5 to 12 t, which corresponds to vehicle categories N1, N2, M2, M3. The developed main components of the unified EMPU include: asynchronous three-phase traction electric motors with power range from 80 to 300 kW, torque range from 250 to 1,000 N·m respectively, output shaft rotation frequency of 9,000 rpm and liquid cooling of stator and rotor; inverters designed to control traction motors with input voltage range from 300 to 900 V, output phase current range from 200 to 600 A and liquid-cooled power keys; reduction gearboxes with gear ratio from 3 to 4.5 and step gearboxes with the number of gears from 2 to 4. The result of works on unification of electric power drives for commercial transport also is a number of standard designs of parts and units and assembly units; normative and technical support of control (tests, analysis, measurements) of certification and quality assessment of products; establishment of requirements for technological processes, including for reduction of material, energy and labor intensity to ensure the use of low-waste technologies. When creating the electric truck MAZ-4381EE, corresponding to the vehicle category N2, the EMPU was used as a part of electric motor TAEM 130 with capacity of 130 kW and two-stage shaft gearbox. The created prototype of electric truck is characterized by almost complete localization, providing import independence of most components and intellectual component of the car.

Financing high-cost measures for deep emission cuts in the basic materials industry – Proposal for a value chain transition fund

There are currently insufficient policy incentives for most producers of basic materials across Europe to invest in low-emissions technologies. This paper explores a novel approach to financing the investments required to accelerate the transition towards zero-emissions practices. To engage non-state actors in this process, and to formalise cross-sectorial collaboration, we explore the establishment of a Value Chain Transition Fund (VCTF). We use the European cement and steel industries as case studies. The VCTF, funded through a premium imposed on basic materials incorporated into end-products, would be used to finance investments in transformative technologies needed to meet emissions cuts along CO2-intensive supply chains, such as carbon capture on cement and steel plants and hydrogen direct reduction steel production. Our results show that the VCTF ensures that overnight investments and operational expenditures needed for carbon capture in the European cement and steel industries can be recouped in 6–8 and 2–6 years respectively, and for steel produced with hydrogen direct reduction it can be recouped in 3–16 years. The VCTF results in an increase in consumer prices of 0.2%–1.1% in the case of a passenger electric vehicle, and an increase of 0.3%–0.6% in production costs in the case of a high-speed railway, as examples of representative end products.

Generation of hydrogen fuel on board vehicles with internal combustion engines

This article discusses advances in the design of hydrogen fuel engines; the main characteristics of the hybrid engine are studied; prospects for further research are outlined; development and improvement of engine designs, research of processes in engines running on natural gas and hydrogen. Transport is one of the key elements of modern civilization. Its condition and development prospects largely depend on the ability to supply transport power plants with fuel. The depletion of liquid hydrocarbon fuel reserves and problems of environmental pollution may present humanity with a choice - either to reduce transport transportation or to find new ways to supply energy to transport. OBJECTIVE: To review the electrochemical technologies used for the production of hydrogen at gas stations and the operation of hybrid electric vehicle engines using fuel cell batteries. Conduct a comparative analysis of the production and use of energy by electrochemical and traditional methods in vehicles. METHODS are based on analysis of literature data and mathematical calculations. For a passenger electric vehicle, the amount of electricity that can be obtained in a fuel cell by processing 1 kg of hydrogen was calculated. It has been shown that the specific fuel consumption for a hydrogen electric vehicle averages 1 kg of hydrogen per 100 km. Hydrogen has the potential to be the sustainable fuel of the future, reducing global dependence on fossil fuel resources and reducing carbon emissions from the transportation industry.

Projections of non-exhaust emissions from brake wear across Japan for 2020–2050

The concerns regarding the detrimental impacts of the increasing proportion of non-exhaust emissions are growing, even though there is a decrease in exhaust emissions from vehicles worldwide. Brake wear is a source of non-exhaust emissions. Despite the high density of traffic in Japan, the emission from brake wear has rarely been the target of studies. The objectives of this study are to estimate the environmental concentrations of copper (Cu) and antimony (Sb) released from brake wear in Japan and compare these concentrations on an annual basis (from 2020 to 2050). The Cu content in brake pads is estimated to decrease greatly from 2021 to 2025, whereas the Sb content is estimated to a moderate level by 2050. In this study, we used an atmospheric dispersion model to predict the reduction in Cu and Sb concentrations emitted from vehicles; owing to the transition to electric vehicles equipped with regenerative brakes (which will generate fewer wear particles), the Cu and Sb emissions in 2050 will decrease by 98 and 89 %, respectively, compared to the emissions noted in 2020. However, the contribution of conventional and electric vehicles to Cu and Sb concentrations will reverse in 30 years, owing to the country's goal that electric passenger vehicles will account for 100 % of the new-vehicle sales by 2035. By 2050, the contribution of conventional vehicles to Cu and Sb concentrations will be only 1 and 3 %, respectively, which will be from conventional vehicles supplied to the market by 2034. Thus, based on the future estimates of the number of vehicles and the composition of their brake pads, we predicted the environmental concentrations of Cu and Sb released from brake wear. The projections presented in this study can serve future interdisciplinary studies on environmental pollution, anthropological emissions reduction, and sustainable development.

Cybersecurity Challenges in the Era of Chinese Electric Passenger Vehicles

The present research focuses on investigating the security of data transmitted by electric passenger vehicles originating from the People’s Republic of China, particularly when sent for remote processing. Initially, the study examines the factors contributing to the widespread presence of Chinese vehicles in the European market. Additionally, it explores the measures undertaken by the European Union to safeguard the information and data security of its member states. Following this investigation, an in-depth qualitative research method involving semi-structured interviews was conducted. Ten experts in information security were interviewed, and their insights were analysed concerning the identified challenges. The primary objective of this publication is to draw attention to the conceptual deficiencies that impede the protection of data and information, highlighting how a large volume of data collected from a third country, in this case, electric passenger vehicles, may pose national security risks.

Carbon reduction effects of electric delivery vehicle adoption in Chinese cities: Gradient pattern and scenario analysis

China's carbon peak and neutrality targets pose major challenges for the transportation sector due to its significant contribution to carbon emissions. The analysis of the penetration process and impact of electric delivery vehicles (EDVs) in the urban delivery industry (UDI) is relatively poor compared with electric passenger vehicles. This study conducts a scenario analysis of the electrification process and carbon impact of delivery vehicles (DVs) in Chinese cities based on current data and policies. In the baseline scenario, the stock of urban DVs is predicted to reach 22.4 million in 2035, while the stock of EDVs will reach 7.8 million, representing 35 % of the total. Carbon emissions from DVs will decline from a peak of 120.5 Mt in 2022 to 101.4 Mt in 2035 due to the penetration of EDVs. The high electrification rate (HER) scenario will result in an additional 10 Mt of carbon emissions reduction in 2035 as 45 % of DVs are electric. Furthermore, the impact of electrification on carbon emissions shows a spatial gradient due to city size and local policies. With a better understanding of EDV adoption and energy-related carbon emissions in Chinese cities, suggestions are proposed to promote low-carbon transition of UDI in different types of cities.

Study of energy consumption improvement for electric vehicles in platoon driving

Abstract It is known that platoon driving has a large impact on fuel economy for conventional vehicles and using current available technologies, could be implemented especially on highway driving. Since the transition to electric vehicles is in progress, it is important to evaluate its applicability to this type of vehicles which have different characteristics than conventional ones equipped with an internal combustion engine. This paper aims to investigate the energy consumption improvement for a platoon of up to 7 electric passenger vehicles using a validated detailed model created in LMS Imagine. Lab AMESim, an industrial modelling and simulation environment. The energy consumption of individual vehicles and also the platoon’s will be calculated for several stabilized speeds and also on a standardized high-speed cycle (HWFET). The analysis will show how the special characteristics of an electric vehicle (lower drag coefficient, increased mass, regenerative braking, etc.) have an influence on the vehicle’s energy consumption when driving in a platoon. This will allow us to also evaluate the platoon driving efficacity in increasing the vehicle’s driving range.

Overseas Strategic Communication Strategies of New Energy Enterprises: Media Image Analysis of BYD and CATL in Hungary

The 2024 Government Work Report released by the State Council pointed out that the export of “new trio” - electric vehicles, lithium-ion batteries, and photovoltaic products has witnessed a year-on-year increase of nearly 30%, showcasing that the momentum of Chinese new energy enterprises going global is thriving. Hungary, ranking among the top three lithium-ion battery producing countries globally, with its automotive industry accounting for 10% of its GDP and 20% of its total exports, serves as a crucial market. Since 2022, Chinese leading battery enterprises represented by CATL and electric passenger vehicle enterprises represented by BYD have successively established factories in Hungary, drawing extensive attention from local media and the public. These flagship enterprises of the “new trio” have become important symbols of China’s high-quality development, and their media image in host countries can to some extent represent the overseas image of Chinese new energy enterprises, holding significant implications for the construction of China’s national image. Leveraging the author’s language expertise, this paper selects and analyzes 220 relevant reports from three mainstream media outlets in Hungary through a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, supplemented by longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis. Additionally, considering the enterprises’ overseas social media operations, the paper examines the external communication images of the two Chinese new energy enterprises and the challenges they face, concluding with tailored recommendations.

Study on the Necessity of Real-World Driving Tests for Passenger Electric Vehicles

Study on the Necessity of Real-World Driving Tests for Passenger Electric Vehicles

Joint Routing and Charging Optimization of Electric Passenger Vehicles With Uninterruptible Charging Service

Joint Routing and Charging Optimization of Electric Passenger Vehicles With Uninterruptible Charging Service

Projecting future critical material demand and recycling from China's electric passenger vehicles considering vehicle segment heterogeneity

Critical factors like electric vehicle market penetration, battery chemistry, and battery capacity determine future critical material demand and recycling potential from electric vehicles. However, current studies largely ignored the heterogeneity among vehicle segments. This study introduces a vehicle-model-based big-data driven approach to unveil electric vehicle characteristics at fleet-wide and vehicle-segment levels. Further, a bottom-up model was built to project the battery material flow dynamics in 8 scenarios, identifying middle and large vehicle segments as primary contributors. In the Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenario, demand for lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese by 2050 will reach 182, 447, 61, and 44 kt, respectively, with recycled materials meeting 59 %, 58 %, 60 %, and 57 % of demand. The demand and recycling of critical materials have significant inherent uncertainty, with demand potentially fluctuating from one-quarter to twice the BAU level. Policies can greatly reduce primary resources for critical materials by guiding battery usage preferences and promoting recycling.

Energy consumption evaluation of passenger electric vehicle based on ambient temperature under Real-World driving conditions

Electric vehicles are affected by ambient temperature, which is closely related to the driving range. This study conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the energy efficiency using both a chassis dynamometer and actual driving environments. Under various temperature conditions, the motor energy, battery energy, regenerative energy, and energy efficiency were analyzed using a Combination US06 mode of the chassis dynamometer and the Konkuk University route to realize real-world driving scenario. The results revealed that low temperatures increased the motor and battery energy consumptions (compared to 24 ℃ ambient temperature, −15 ℃ required 35.4 % more.) while hindering regenerative energy recovery during driving. This study confirmed that the optimal energy efficiency for electric vehicles is attained at approximately (20 to 30) ℃. Notably, the energy efficiencies were real- higher than the certified values under real-world driving conditions. Moreover, when the HVAC system is turned on, it increases battery energy consumption by 5.4 % in the summer and by 12.0 % in the winter, influencing the overall energy efficiency with higher battery energy consumption during its operation in both seasons. Therefore, the study findings highlight the importance of considering the ambient temperature and HVAC system usage when evaluating vehicle energy efficiency and driving range. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the need for future vehicle designs and energy management systems to optimize the performance under various ambient conditions, thereby enhancing the overall energy efficiency and extending the driving range.

An urban charging load forecasting model based on trip chain model for private passenger electric vehicles: A case study in Beijing

The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to dramatic increase in charging demands that poses great challenges for efficient charging infrastructure rollout and operation. It is crucial to accurately assess charging demand in urban areas to optimize the siting and sizing of charging infrastructure. This paper proposes a novel urban charging load forecasting model for private passenger EVs based on massive operating data of EVs in Beijing. First, the characteristics of travel patterns for private passenger EVs, urban road network, functional area distribution and charging infrastructure distribution within the entire Beijing area are identified. Then a charging load forecasting model that can simultaneously simulate trip chains for EVs is constructed by considering the occupancy states of public charging piles and the interactions among different EVs. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed charging load forecasting model is verified based on comprehensive test data. Our findings imply that the number of EVs at recharge and the charging power can be reliably predicted with the accuracy of over 84.73 % and 81.92 %, respectively. It provides the foundation for optimal charging infrastructure planning and charging scheduling.

Emissions and ownership-cost of conventional and electric passenger vehicles in Bogotá, Colombia

The increasing vehicle technologies and fuels available for urban passenger transportation urge decision-makers to support dynamic policies that consider life-cycle impacts to benefit local and global environmental conditions. This study uses a Well-to-Wheels Life Cycle Assessment approach to assess the costs and impacts of various vehicle technologies in Bogotá, Colombia, considering the total ownership cost and pollution emissions. Despite a higher initial investment, we find that battery electric vehicles will be more cost-effective than internal combustion vehicles in less than three years. Electric motorcycles present the best cost-benefit ratio. However, to effectively reduce emissions, it is crucial to decrease the share of fossil fuels in electricity production to less than 30%, given the current 70% renewable share in the Colombian electricity mix. This research provides valuable insights for decision-makers, combining total ownership cost and well-to-wheel analysis and focusing on developing countries.

Exploring the potential impact of electric passenger vehicle battery recycling on China's cobalt supply and demand under the goals of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality during 2010–2060

Automobile electrification is a viable strategy in China for achieving carbon neutrality goals. Presently, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are extensively utilized in consumer electronics. If power LIB-equipped electric vehicles (EVs) deeply penetrate the automotive market, the recovery of cobalt from end-of-life batteries will largely impact the future availability of this resource. However, the contribution of battery recycling to cobalt availability is unclear, as the possibility of recovering cobalt for reuse in manufacturing is uncertain. We adopted prospective dynamic macro material flow analysis methods in this study based on stock-driven models to explore cobalt demand trends for the widespread deployment of EVs and the potential impact of battery recycling on cobalt supply and demand, thereby examining the cobalt cycle in China's anthroposphere during the period of 2010–2060. The results demonstrate that if the quality of recovered cobalt is not high enough to be reused in battery manufacturing, the recovered cobalt may result in a serious potential oversupply of secondary materials. The first year of such an oversupply would occur sometime between 2034 and 2057, and the cumulative oversupply of recovered cobalt during the period of 2031 and 2060 is projected to be fall within 0.012–3.30 million tons, depending on battery type, recovery rate (RR) and electrification scenario. Moreover, the supply-demand gap has the potential to reach 0.19 to 0.55 million tons by 2060. An explosive growth in total cobalt demand would inevitably drive a faster increase in virgin cobalt material imports or the exploitation of large quantities of cobalt, thus resulting in potential supply disruptions and restricting the sustainable utilization of this resource. Conversely, if the quality of recovered cobalt remains intact, it would meet 25.4%–66.9% of the cumulative cobalt inflows for EV battery manufacturing between 2010 and 2060, depending on the RRs and electrification scenarios. Consequently, the rapid development of cost-efficient closed-loop battery recycling methods through timely improvements in recycling infrastructure, industrial policies, recycling systems, and clean production of entire battery recycling chains is imperative. Uncertainty analysis indicates that changes in battery lifespan and battery capacity only slightly influence cobalt material flows, whereas variations in vehicle ownership and population development have more obvious effects. These findings can serve as a scientific reference for the formulation of targeted industrial policies for EVs and batteries and the development of cost-effective and efficient recycling systems and technologies, thus facilitating the sustainable management of EVs and batteries in China, as well as driving high-quality cobalt recycling.

Health benefits of vehicle electrification through air pollution in Shanghai, China

Vehicle electrification has been recognized for its potential to reduce emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases in China. Several studies have estimated how national-level policies of electric vehicle (EV) adoption might bring very large environmental and public health benefits from improved air quality to China. However, large-scale adoption is very costly, some regions derive more benefits from large-scale EV adoption than others, and the benefits of replacing internal combustion engines in specific cities are less known. Therefore, it is important for policymakers to design incentives based on regional characteristics – especially for megacities like Shanghai – which typically suffer from worse air quality and where a larger population is exposed to emissions from vehicles. Over the past five years, Shanghai has offered substantial personal subsidies for passenger EVs to accelerate its electrification efforts. Still, it remains uncertain whether EV benefits justify the strength of incentives. The purpose of our study is to evaluate the health and climate benefits of replacing light-duty gasoline vehicles (ICEVs) with battery EVs in the city of Shanghai. We assess health impacts due to ICEV emissions of primary fine particulate matter, NOx, and volatile organic compounds, and to powerplant emissions of NOx and SO2 due to EV charging. We incorporate climate benefits from reduced greenhouse gas emissions based on existing research. We find that the benefit of replacing the average ICEV with an EV in Shanghai is US$6400 (2400-14,700), with health impacts of EVs about 20 times lower than the average ICEV. Larger benefits ensue if older ICEVs are replaced, but replacing newer China ICEVs also achieves positive health benefits. As Shanghai plans to stop providing personal subsidies for EV purchases in 2024, our results show that EVs achieve public health and climate benefits and can help inform policymaking strategies in Shanghai and other megacities.

Post-Mortem Analysis of a Commercial Li-Ion Pouch Cell and the Effects of Aging on Overall Battery State of Health (SOH)

In the past 20 years, the use of lithium ion batteries (LIBs) has increased exponentially. LIBs are found in electric passenger vehicles (EVs), marine craft, and are being explored for larger vehicles and even aircraft. In order to have more sustainable operation, it is necessary to better understand the aging mechanisms involved in battery degradation which affects performance and remaining capacity which are primary metrics for a battery’s state of health (SOH). When the SOH of a battery reaches a certain threshold, it may no longer be useful in its primary role, and can be unsafe to continue using. Some approaches are to utilize the cell in a second life application, but in the end there are processes that can lead to hazardous cell failure.Here we investigate the effects of aging on large commercial Li-ion pouch cells from a post-mortem perspective. The effects of ageing are well known, but the causes are not always well understood. The deterioration of cell health can arise from a number of sources namely loss of lithium inventory (LLI)[1], physical degradation of the NMC cathodes1-2 , electrolyte degradation, graphite anodes being more resistant to lithiation3, and the electrode separator material may also become less conducive to ion transfer4 due to aging. Cumulatively, these contribute to overall deterioration of battery SOH.This study is based on results from a battery life study performed on a large renowned Li-ion pouch cell with an initial capacity of 64 Ah. More than 100 cells were tested following a selected test matrix including different temperatures, currents, State-of-Charge and with or without mechanical constraint of the cell. All cells were tested until they reached a remaining capacity of between 60 to 80 % State-of-Health.The investigated cells were part of a large-scale life cycle study, in which over 100 cells were tested under varying temperature, current and state-of-charge windows, both, with and without mechanical constraints of the cell. In this study we compare the post-mortem findings of three different cells: one uncycled cell, and two cells cycled at 25oC and 0-100% SoC to 80% remaining capacity (SoH). The difference between the two cycled cells was that one cell was mechanically constrained while the other cell was allowed to swell. We present electrochemical testing data for both the full cells and half cells from the recovered post-mortem electrodes as well as detailed electron microscopy, XRD and synchrotron results. Capacity losses, decreased rate capabilities, and physical degradation pheonomena are presented and discussed. Additionally, this study also looks at the calendar aging of recovered electrodes.

Kia India: Foray Into Electric Passenger Vehicle Market

Kia India, the wholly owned subsidiary of South Korea based Kia Corporation, was unquestionably a late entrant in the highly competitive Indian passenger vehicle (PV) industry. Its ingress was nonetheless well planned and its strategic initiatives were adeptly executed. A well-conceived product portfolio juxtaposed with an astute segmentation, targeting and positioning strategy enabled Kia India establish itself as an inspiring brand in a hyper competitive Indian automobile marketplace. Timely launch of trend-leading PVs formed part of Kia India’s growth story. Kia drove into the electric PV (E-PV) segment with the launch of EV6. Will the recent product launches enable Kia India add more superlatives to its name? Is there a need to revisit the product portfolio and analyse the status of different models that the company has hitherto launched in the country? How can Kia India continue its storied journey in India?

Evaluating the impact of passenger electric vehicle adoption on high renewable resources electricity grid

A considerable amount of electricity is additionally demanded for Electric Vehicle (EV) charging due to rapid EV penetration. This study explores the impact of time of charging for different levels of passenger EV penetration on the electricity system using a case study electricity system with high penetration of renewable energy resources. A simulation approach is proposed to determine the new demand profile due to EV charging. Next, a Mixed Integer Linear Programming model is formulated considering the operation schedules of conventional power plants to mimic the real-time status of the electricity system. Finally, the developed approach considers the different possible interventions of actual EVs available in the market and tries to determine their impact in a renewable energy-dominated electricity system. The results from the study show that it is emission-friendly to encourage night charging rather than day charging for the considered renewable energy-dominated case study electricity system.