Partner Country Research Articles

Impact and economic analysis of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-targeted antenatal screening, England and Wales, 2021.

BackgroundHuman T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a neglected virus that can cause severe disease and be transmitted from mother to child through breastfeeding. Avoidance of breastfeeding prevents 80% of vertical transmission. The United Kingdom (UK) is currently assessing whether HTLV-1-targeted antenatal screening should be implemented.AimWe aimed to assess the impact and cost-effectiveness of a targeted programme to prevent HTLV-1 vertical transmission in England and Wales.MethodsWe estimated the number of pregnant women who have high risk of HTLV-1 infection based on their or their partner's country of birth. With data from 2021, we used a mathematical model to assess cost-effectiveness of HTLV-1 antenatal screening. We also estimated the annual number of infant infections and the number that could be prevented with screening and intervention.ResultsWe estimate that ca 99,000 pregnant women in England and Wales have high risk of HTLV-1 infection. In the absence of screening, 74 (range: 25-211) HTLV-1 infections in infants would be expected to occur every year in England and Wales. Implementation of targeted screening would prevent 58 (range: 19-164) infant infections annually. The intervention is effective (incremental 0.00333 quality-adjusted life years (QALY)) and cost-saving (GBP -57.56 (EUR -66.85)).ConclusionOur findings support implementation of HTLV-1 targeted antenatal screening to reduce vertical transmission from mothers to infants in the UK.

Integrating interventions supported by development assistance for health into local health system: evidence from a China–World Bank–UK rural health system strengthening project (1998–2007)

IntroductionTo empirically investigate sustainability of development assistance for health (DAH), we conducted a retrospective case study on the Basic Health Services Project (BHSP) for rural health system strengthening, supported by...

SOCIO-CULTURAL COMPETENCE OF STUDENTS LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION: BASED ON ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGE MATERIALS

This work is devoted to the theoretical foundations of the formation of socio-cultural competence of students of higher education institutions. In the context of economic, political, and legal convergence between Ukraine and Western partner countries, the importance of the level of education is clearly understood. Socio-cultural competence serves as a platform for interaction between different nationalities and peoples, fostering their comprehensive cooperation and the realization of ambitious plans. Therefore, socio-cultural competence is considered an attribute of high professionalism. The analysis of the views of various scientists regarding the definition of socio-cultural aspect and socio-cultural competence, as well as the definition of their structure, was carried out. Socio-cultural competence is at the intersection of country studies, linguistic and sociolinguistic competences. It was determined that the development of communication skills should be carried out through the prism of the cultural values of the people and speakers of the target language. The main methods of forming this competence among students are singled out. The article analyzes, systematizes, and summarizes scientific works, distinguishing the following 2 main stages of formation of socio-cultural competence: the stage of schematization and the stage of independent interpretation of socio-cultural phenomena. The process of developing sociocultural competence includes the following stages: linguistic, situational, and integrative. At these stages, the teacher should use a variety of game or creative tasks. It is emphasized that authentic materials play a decisive role in the formation of socio-cultural competence of students, because they are maximally enriched with natural lexical content, reflect the color and behavioral characteristics of a certain target nation.

Efforts for Energy-Based Regionalisation in the Turkic World: The Organization of Turkic States

The main objective of this article is to analyse the energy policies of partner countries of the Organization of Turkic States (OTS), established over two energy regions, within the context of “energy regionalism.” The study, based on the premise that energy is one of the fundamental sources of motivation for the organisation, discusses the contributions of energy to the development and deepening of cooperation among the Turkic States. The paper explores the expectations of member countries from the organisation in terms of energy within the context of energy regionalism analysis criteria and seeks to answer questions regarding the level of fulfillment of these expectations. The findings suggest that the organisation has special importance in energy issues, with energy being a prominent subject in its written materials. The analysis reveals that the union broadly satisfies the criteria of energy regionalism, indicating the potential for implementing concrete cooperation projects related to energy among member countries in the medium term.

Analysing the Factors Behind Exchange Rate Fluctuations in India

Abstract: The study gives an overview of the various determinants of the exchange rate movements in India. Out of the multiple factors affecting the Rupee-Dollar value the impact of Interest rate differential, Trade deficit of India, Foreign Net investment inflows to India, Oil prices, and Gold prices (in the short term) on the exchange rate has been studied using Regression analysis and correlation and the role they played by the above mentioned variables in determining the exchange rate during the Global Financial Crisis of 2008-2010 and during the Covid-19 Period from 2020-2023. Exchange rate fluctuations play a crucial role in shaping the economy of a country, and India is no exception. The exchange rate of the Indian rupee against major world currencies is subject to constant fluctuations, influenced by a multitude of domestic and global factors. These fluctuations have significant implications for various stakeholders, including businesses, consumers, investors, and policymakers. Several factors contribute to the exchange rate fluctuations in India. One of the primary factors is the demand and supply dynamics of foreign exchange. Factors such as trade balance, foreign direct investments, portfolio investments, remittances impact the demand for and supply of foreign currency, Crude oil prices, Gold prices, and thereby affecting the exchange rate. In addition, macroeconomic variables like inflation, interest rates, and economic growth also play a crucial role in determining exchange rate movements. For instance, a high inflation rate in India compared to trading partner countries can lead to a depreciation of the rupee. Global economic conditions and geopolitical events are other significant factors influencing exchange rate fluctuations in India. Economic developments in major trading partners, changes in global commodity prices, and geopolitical tensions can all impact investor sentiment and capital flows, leading to fluctuations in the exchange rate. For example, uncertainties related to Brexit or trade tensions between major economies can trigger volatility in currency markets. Monetary policy decisions by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) also play a crucial role in influencing exchange rates. Interest rate changes, open market operations, and forex interventions by the central bank can impact the value of the rupee visa-vis other currencies. The RBI often intervenes in the foreign exchange market to stabilize the rupee or prevent extreme volatility. Apart from these factors, market speculation, investor sentiment, and technological advancements in the financial markets can also contribute to exchange rate fluctuations. High-frequency trading, algorithmic trading, and the use of complex financial instruments by market participants can amplify exchange rate movements and increase volatility

Do export responses to exchange rate movements differ in micro export flows?

This paper empirically examines how exports respond to exchange rate movements (exchange rate and exchange rate volatility) at the micro and macro levels using Turkey’s bilateral export data with 65 partner countries. Panel data contaninig 65 cross-sectional dimensions and 60 monthly time series dimensions from 2018:01 to 2022:12 are used. The empirical results of the Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML) technique show that the negative effect of exchange rate volatility on micro export flows is amplified. Moreover, the potential positive effect of the exchange rate on micro export flows is weaker. Our findings are robust against the alternative method of exchange rate volatility and nominal exchange rate volatility. Our results are also intact under alternative robustness tests. The paper provides notable policy implications. Policymakers should be aware of the potential structural differences between micro and macro exports. Therefore, policymakers should also consider other aspects such as cross-border e-commerce when formulating economic policies on microexports.

Mobilizing knowledge about urban change for equity and sustainability: developing 'Change Stories', a multi-country transdisciplinary study.

Health-focused research funders increasingly support multi-country research partnerships that study health, urban development and equity in global settings. To develop new knowledge that benefits society, these grants require researchers to integrate diverse knowledges and data, and to manage research-related aspects of coloniality, such as power imbalances and epistemic injustices. We conducted research to develop a transdisciplinary study proposal with partners in multiple middle and high income countries, aiming to embed equity into the methodology and funding model. Parallel to literature review, we used participatory and social research methods to identify case study cities for our primary study and to inform our study design. We conducted semi-structured interviews with informed and consented sustainable urban development experts in the USA (n=23). We co-developed our research approach with our global advisory group (n=14) and conducted a participatory workshop (n=30) to identify case study sites, also informed by conversations with international academic experts in sustainable development (n=27). Through literature review we found that there is a need to study the contextual pre-conditions of urban transformation, the influence of coloniality on understandings of how cities can change and the failure of standard development practices to meet the needs of all residents and the planet. Through expert input and literature we found that decolonial and storytelling methods may help us show the complexities behind stories of urban transformation, particularly the role of marginalized populations in creating long-term change. There are multiple benefits of conducting research to develop an equitably designed multi-country research collaboration. We built new partnerships and co-developed our research approach, creating new understanding of diverse collaborators' disciplinary perspectives and institutional requirements. By investigating the informational needs of U.S. sustainable development actors and designing our study to meet these needs, we have increased the likelihood that our research will create impact.

ORDOLIBERAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC POLICY AS A MODEL OF REFORMS FOR THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP COUNTRIES

The Ordoliberal economic policy is a valuable source of inspiration for many countries wanting to reform their political and socio-economic systems. It is also a valuable "object" of research and analysis. Ordoliberalism was initially introduced only in the Western occupation zones, then, after the reunification of Germany in 1990, it was extended to the area of the former German Democratic Republic and, to some extent, constituted a reference point for reforms in the countries of Central Europe. In turn, the Eastern Partnership is an initiative based on close cooperation between the EU and six Eastern European countries that are not members of the EU structures. It was inaugurated ten years ago on the initiative of Poland and Sweden. This publication tries to answer the question to what extent the German experience with ordoliberalism can be useful for countries undergoing the process of systemic transformation, with particular emphasis on the countries of Eastern Partnership countries. The analysis was prepared using the institutional and legal method, while the main source base were available scientific publications and published documents. Keywords: Ordoliberalism, Eastern Partnership, Social Market Economy.

Do research collaborations age like wine? Absolute and relative measures of CANZUK research partnerships' strength since the 1950s.

Although previous studies of today's globalised and competitive research landscape have mentioned the research collaborations of CANZUK countries (i.e., Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom), none have yet studied them in detail. Further, such studies have used different measures of international research collaboration (IRC), resulting in disparate findings. This paper, therefore, analyses the strengths of CANZUK research collaborations, how those collaborations have changed over time, and assesses the effect of three ways of measures on the results (absolute strength, bilateral similarity, and multilateral similarity). We provide a detailed characterisation of the CANZUK research network and its relationships with partner countries, which reveals that the most collaborative CANZUK countries are the UK and Australia, among other findings. We also confirm that many findings differ depending on which measures are used. We offer an explanation of this difference with reference to the nature of the measures (i.e., what they really measure) and make suggestions for suitable measures in future studies depending on their purpose. Finally, we discuss how this study's findings can be used by research policy makers (in CANZUK and elsewhere) in deciding on research strategy and by researchers in appropriately measuring IRC.

Kebijakan Pemberian Bebas Visa Kunjungan Kepada Warga Negara Singapura dalam Skema Travel Bubble Indonesia Pasca Covid-19

Covid-19 has major impact on the Indonesian tourism sector which is the second-largest foreign exchange contributor in Indonesia. The decline of the tourists’ visit has affected several regions of tourist destinations in Indonesia and Batam is one of them. To restore the tourism sector and to revitalize the economic condition post Covid-19, Indonesia provides a travel bubble policy to Singapore as the partner country. The purpose of the study is to find out the implementation of the policy of visit visa exemption to Singapore in the Indonesian travel bubble cooperation scheme of the post Covid-19 economic recovery. The study is considered as one of the national interest concepts. This study used a qualitative descriptive research method. The study concludes that by implementing the visit visa exemption policy to Singaporean, the tourists visit to Batam has increased. It is also expected that this policy will improve bilateral relations between Indonesia and Singapore and strengthen the Indonesia economy post Covid-19.

40 years of Interplast

Kirstie MacGill reflects on Interplast’s achievements over the last 40 years in assisting partner countries with volunteer surgical missions, as well as education and training for health care services.

MODERN TOOLS FOR MANAGING LOCAL BUDGETS IN THE CONTEXT OF DECENTRALISATION

The crisis in Ukraine's economy requires the government to take significant transformation steps. The issue of decentralization of state powers in favor of local self-government as a basis for the transition to a new administrative-territorial system remains relevant. After all, the current assistance from partner countries to rebuild infrastructure and provide social guarantees does not cover the needs of local governments. Today, the budgets of hromadas, which are formed in accordance with the basic principles of the Concept of Reforming Local Self-Government and Territorial Organization of Power in Ukraine, demonstrate an increase in revenue sources, but these resources are not enough to restore the country's economy. The purpose of the article is to highlight the results of decentralisation in Ukraine; to identify the impact of structural changes in the national economy on the financial capacity of local self-government bodies. Methodology. To achieve this goal, the article uses the structural method, comparative analysis of empirical data, and abstract and logical generalisation. Results. The paper examines the current realities of filling the budgets of hromadas. It finds that, despite the hostilities and the consequences of the coronavirus crisis, some local budgets in 2022-2023 were executed with a surplus. However, one of the factors behind this situation is the increase in "military" income tax revenues, which has significantly strengthened local budgets, but at the same time led to the misuse of funds. At the same time, there was an increase in capital expenditure in local budgets. Subsidies for education and health care, basic, additional and other budgeted transfers were transferred from the state budget to the budgets of local governments. However, the study points out the imperfection of the current equalisation system, which requires the construction of an optimal calculation model. Practical implications. As a basis, it is proposed to use the practice of the leading countries of the world, which is to increase the interest of local authorities in independently searching for additional sources of budget revenues and to reduce the pressure from the government to withdraw funds. Value/originality. Increasing their own revenues, which do not depend on the government's policy on the distribution of national taxes and fees, will allow hromadas to plan expenditures on priority areas regardless of changes at the political level.

Equitable access to quality injury care; Equi-Injury project protocol for prioritizing interventions in four low- or middle-income countries: a mixed method study

BackgroundEquitable access to quality care after injury is an essential step for improved health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We introduce the Equi-Injury project, in which we will use integrated frameworks to understand how to improve equitable access to quality care after injury in four LMICs: Ghana, Pakistan, Rwanda and South Africa.MethodsThis project has 5 work packages (WPs) as well as essential cross-cutting pillars of community engagement, capacity building and cross-country learning. In WP1, we will identify needs, barriers, and facilitators to impactful stakeholder engagement in developing and prioritising policy solutions. In WP2, we will collect data on patient care and outcomes after injuries. In WP3, we will develop an injury pathway model to understand which elements in the pathway of injury response, care and treatment have the biggest impact on health and economic outcomes. In WP4, we will work with stakeholders to gain consensus on solutions to address identified issues; these solutions will be implemented and tested in future research. In WP5, in order to ascertain where learning is transferable across contexts, we will identify which outcomes are shared across countries. The study has received approval from ethical review boards (ERBs) of all partner countries in South Africa, Rwanda, Ghana, Pakistan and the University of Birmingham.DiscussionThis health system evaluation project aims to provide a deeper understanding of injury care and develop evidence-based interventions within and across partner countries in four diverse LMICs. Strong partnership with multiple stakeholders will facilitate utilisation of the results for the co-development of sustainable interventions.

УПРАВЛІННЯ ВЕНЧУРНИМ ФОНДОМ В КОНТЕКСТІ МІЖНАРОДНОГО ПАРТНЕРСТВА

Formulation of the problem. In today's globalized world, venture capital plays a key role in stimulating innovation and the development of new technologies. The growing importance of venture financing draws attention to the management of venture funds, especially in the context of international partnerships. However, despite the potential benefits of international cooperation, there are numerous challenges that make it difficult to effectively manage venture capital funds in such an environment. The purpose of the article is to study modern approaches and strategies of venture fund management in the context of international partnership with the aim of identifying key factors that affect the success of investment projects, consideration of challenges and opportunities arising from cooperation between different countries and regions, determination of optimal approaches to effective management of venture capital assets in the international environment. The object of the study is the key factors affecting the success of investment projects in the international venture environment, as well as practical recommendations for fund managers, investors and regulators in order to improve venture capital management strategies and increase the competitiveness of international investment projects. The methodological basis of the research was the logical methods of information processing, statistical analysis, comparison. The main hypothesis of the study is that there is a direct relationship between the degree of success of venture fund management and the level of cooperation and mutual understanding between partners from different countries and regions. In addition, it is assumed that the implementation of optimal management strategies aimed at maximizing the potential opportunities of international partnership and reducing risks will allow to increase the effectiveness of venture investments on an international scale. Presenting main material. The role of international partnership in venture investing is studied through the analysis of the impact of international partnership on the development of the venture market and the determination of the challenges of managing a venture fund in an international context. The importance of global pooling of resources and expertise for investing in promising startups and technological projects has been proven. The problems of cultural and legal differences between the partner countries are characterized. Strategies for managing venture assets in an international environment are proposed. Originality and practical significance of the research. The study provides an original perspective on venture fund management, considered in the context of international partnerships. The proposed approach allows taking into account cultural, legal and economic differences between partner countries. The given recommendations can be used by fund managers to improve strategies for managing venture assets in the context of international partnerships. Investors will receive information on the key factors and risks associated with international venture investing, which will help them make more informed decisions about the allocation of their investments. Conclusions. The study shows that successful management of a venture fund requires not only technical competence, but also the ability to work effectively in international cooperation and take into account the specific features of different markets. Recommendations are given on optimizing management strategies and reducing risks to achieve successful investment results in international venture business.

РОЗВИТОК ІНВЕСТИЦІЙНОЇ БЕЗПЕКИ ДЕРЖАВИ

Abstract. The article highlights the current issues of development of investment security of the state. It was determined that today's special conditions pose challenges to strengthening the investment security of the state. Proven investment activity at the global level. The result of such activity is a real increase in investment flows from partner countries.
 The components of investment security are systematized: the legal environment, which is characterized by regulated regulatory and legal support, without regulatory collisions and contradictions of individual legal norms; economic and political stability; the stability of the macroeconomic environment, which includes stable inflation, low unemployment, and economic growth; developed infrastructure, which is necessary for making effective investments; geopolitical risks, which include international conflicts, sanctions, trade restrictions; innovative activity that contributes to the creation of competitive industries and attracting investments; social stability, which ensures social justice, balanced development of society, improvement of investment security.
 The development of scientific schools that investigate the issue of investment security is studied. The most famous scientific schools are systematized, in particular: the school of risk-oriented investment management, the school of financial security, which studies the financial aspects of the investment process, financial risks, models of financial asset valuation and financial flow management, the school of political economy, which investigates the influence of political factors on investment activity , a school of international relations, a school of normative and legal regulation, which studies the legal aspects of financial markets.
 It has been proven that scientific schools contribute to the development and improvement of the theory and practice of investment security through the study of various aspects of this issue from different scientific approaches.
 The methods, goals, forms and tools of influence on state regulation of the level of investment security are defined. It is proposed to solve priority problems for strengthening the investment security of the state. The directions of further scientific research in the field of investment security are outlined.

When Foreign Countries Push the Button

Abstract How strong are the constraints against nuclear use? Experimental studies find that a majority or near majority of citizens in multiple major powers approve of their own governments’ nuclear strikes if they create military advantages or protect co-national soldiers. But what if the nuclear taboo only begins at the water's edge when individuals evaluate the use of nuclear weapons by a foreign government? Many policymakers believe that the international reaction to nuclear use would be severe, especially among allies. Yet prior studies have not tested this assumption. An identity-based theory of support for nuclear weapons use proposes that this argument is incorrect. The public will display favoritism toward allied and partner countries because it views them as members of the in-group. Four survey experiments in the United States and India provide evidence for this theory. In contrast to many policymakers’ expectations, public approval of nuclear use is not significantly lower for allies or strategic partners than for one's own government. As expected, however, approval is lower for out-groups, such as non-allied and non-partner countries. Absolute support for nuclear attacks is also high, even when it is foreign countries pushing the button. On balance, these findings are inconsistent with the existence of a nuclear taboo or strong non-use norm.

Cultural competency and ethical behavior for collaboration in limited-resource settings: Guidelines from the Society of University Surgeons Academic Global Surgery Committee and the Association for Academic Global Surgery

BackgroundThere are an increasing number of global surgery activities worldwide. With such tremendous growth, there is a potential risk for untoward interactions between high-income country members and low-middle income country members, leading to programmatic failure, poor results, and/or low impact. MethodsKey concepts for cultural competency and ethical behavior were generated by the Academic Global Surgery Committee of the Society for University Surgeons in collaboration with the Association for Academic Global Surgery. Both societies ensured active participation from high-income countries and low-middle income countries. ResultsThe guidelines provide a framework for cultural competency and ethical behavior for high-income country members when collaborating with low-middle income country partners by offering recommendations for: (1) preparation for work with low-middle income countries; (2) process standardization; (3) working with the local community; (4) limits of practice; (5) patient autonomy and consent; (6) trainees; (7) potential pitfalls; and (8) gray areas. ConclusionThe article provides an actionable framework to address potential cultural competency and ethical behavior issues in high-income country - low-middle income country global surgery collaborations.

RENOVATION OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES IN UKRAINE AFTER THE WAR: STRATEGY AND PERSPECTIVES

The military actions in Ukraine not only led to the destruction of critical infrastructure (hereinafter referred to as CI), especially the energy and transport sectors, but also actualized the need to ensure its security, immediate restoration to provide basic services to the population in various areas. Local public authorities, operators of CIs, as well as the central government of the country and international partners are involved in the processes of immediate restoration of CI facilities in Ukraine, which, on the basis of cooperation, provide organization, planning, and financing of its reconstruction. Initiatives of the national government to establish cooperation testify to the existing prospects for the long-term development of CI. Therefore, the modernization and construction of new CI facilities takes place on the basis of partnership, which contributes to the attraction of human, financial, material and technical and other types of resources, the establishment of cooperation mechanisms and the interaction of public administration subjects of various institutional levels. Transport and energy infrastructure requires the largest financial investments and efforts of various subjects - participants in the recovery process, because it ensures the provision of basic public services for the population. Taking into account the need for long-term development of CI facilities in various sectors of the economy, the National Recovery Council of Ukraine presented the «Project Recovery Plan». This document provides for the implementation of programs for the restoration of the most priority sectors using a project approach (logistics, infrastructure, including educational, social, healthcare infrastructure and other sectors). For long-term planning of the reconstruction of critical infrastructure, proposals are made for the practical implementation of sectoral and functional approaches in public administration in the relevant field. This position corresponds to the provisions of the Law of Ukraine «On Critical Infrastructure» № 1882-IX of 01.01.2024, providing for the construction and reconstruction of CI facilities according to the importance of their functions for consumers of services in various infrastructure sectors. In general, the study of public administration in the field of reconstruction of various sectors of the economy, as well as the analysis of the growth dynamics of Ukraine’s GDP in 2021-2023 according to the production method, indicates the strength of various types of economic activity.

통합적 접근법 실현을 위한 ODA 정책과제

Purpose: This research aims to identify policy tasks for international development cooperation (ODA) projects in order to implement an integrated approach and evaluate them. In this context, the paper redefines the definitions and classifications of integrated approaches, explores methodological changes, and evaluates the potential for mainstreaming.
 Originality: An integrated approach has been emerging at a time when ODA projects have been packaged or enlarged, emphasizing a holistic and comprehensive perspective. This study aims to derive practical concepts shaped by discourse and consensus among experts in the field.
 Methodology: The policy agenda for integrating ODA projects is identified through a Delphi survey involving 30 distinguished experts in the field of international development cooperation. The survey assesses the importance, urgency, and feasibility of each agenda item.
 Result: External factors are more urgent compared to internal factors, but they are not considered more important or highly feasible. The high-priority policy tasks include facilitating adequate discussions on supply and demand between donor and recipient countries (partner countries), enhancing cooperation with relevant departments/agencies in recipient countries, and improving the project management capacity of Korean specialized institutions.
 Conclusion and Implication: These results are expected to contribute to the development of related policies and program design based on the integrated approach. Furthermore, this research can contribute to the formulation of relevant national policies and enhance the national brand.

한국 녹색 ODA 메커니즘 변화에 대한 연구

Purpose: This study analyzes changes in the mechanism of South Korea’s Green ODA to ASEAN-Korea partner countries.
 Originality: The allocation of Green ODA support cannot be comprehensively explained by neither the donor country interest model nor the recipient country need model. Thus, it is essential to broaden the discussion by considering various combinations of conditions that impact the allocation of Green ODA.
 Methodology: Utilizing Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, this study identifies the changing allocation patterns of South Korea's Green ODA. Subsequently, case studies were conducted based on the results of the combination of causal conditions.
 Result: In 2006 and 2011, the causal conditions converged into the same combination. However, two distinct patterns were identified in 2021. Both combinations are characterized by low trade volumes and a low democracy index from the donors’ interest, as well as by lower exports of eco-friendly products and a lower GDP per capita from the recipients’ need. Despite these shared traits, differences emerged in FDI and environmental vulnerability. These results underline how unique combinations of factors influence Green ODA distribution differently. Detailed case studies on Cambodia and Laos, particularly the latter, illustrate scenarios where conventional criteria of donor country's interests and recipient country's needs were not met. Despite this, a significant level of Green ODA was still secured.
 Conclusion and Implication: This study contributed to enhance Green ODA's integral role in global environmental governance, emphasizing the importance of formulating Green ODA strategies that aligned with the environmental goals and unique socio-economic contexts of recipient countries.