Participation Of Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Socio-economic determinants of smallholder plantation sizes in Ghana and options to encourage reforestation

Reforestation, particularly in the tropics, is of crucial importance for the environment as well as society. However, small planting areas and low participation of smallholder farmers in tree planting programmes often obstruct realisation of set planting area targets. In this regard, we interviewed smallholder farmers undertaking indigenous species reforestation in Oda Kotoamso community within the Wassa Amenfi West District in Western Region of Ghana with a pre-tested questionnaire to identify (1) key socio-economic factors that predict the size of plantations they establish, (2) options that could encourage tree planting among smallholder farmers, and (3) tree species planted by the smallholder farmers and their conservation status according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Key socio-economic factors were predicted with multiple regression models and ANOVA. Options were ranked on a five-point Likert scale and their differences were tested with the Mann–Whitney U test. Age and income of smallholders are the significant predictors of plantation sizes but farmers’ household size and gender were not significant. Age and income accounted for 77.1% and 22.9%, respectively, of the total variation described by our model (R 2 = 38.4%). In order of importance, incentives (mean = 4.35, SD = 0.48), public nurseries (mean = 4.2, SD = 0.82) and agroforestry (mean = 4.06, SD = 0.56) were the options that could encourage reforestation, though incentives and public nurseries were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Almost half (9 of 19) of the tree species planted are categorised as Vulnerable species, which highlights the contribution of smallholder farmers to recovery of threatened tree species. Our findings suggest that sustainable provision of planting materials in incentivised and youth-based tree planting programmes could increase planting hectarage and conserve threatened tree species.

Smallholder participation in vegetable exports and age-disaggregated labor allocation in Northern Tanzania

Modern agricultural supply chains have been playing an increasingly important role in developing countries and have had significant effects on rural labor markets. This article analyses the effects of smallholder farmer participation in export vegetable supply chains in Northern Tanzania on both household hired labor demand and off‐farm labor supply, using an age‐disaggregated approach. In our sample, neither separability nor exogeneity of smallholder farmer participation in export supply chains can be rejected. Hence, we apply lognormal double‐hurdle models and find that participation in export supply chains positively affects households’ decision to hire labor from all age groups. We also find that it increases the unconditional overall level of hired labor demand, while the age‐disaggregated analysis shows that these effects mostly benefit rural youth. However, our sample does not allow us to establish statistically significant evidence of an effect on household off‐farm labor supply although the point estimates point to nonnegligible positive effect sizes.

The socio-economic Impacts of Irrigated Smallholder Agriculture on Sustainable Household Food Security in Kenya.

Kenya has a total land area of 582,646 square kilometres of which, about 99,050 square kilometres (17%) is classified as medium to high agricultural potential experiencing at least 700mm of rainfall per annum. The remaining 83% is classified as ASAL and needs some irrigation for meaningful farming to take place. Irrigation is necessary in order to increase food production to provide food security to support the rapidly growing population, and ensure economic growth in the dwindling land holdings of high to medium potential areas (IDB, 1998). The Kenya Vision 2030 (2008-2030), targets the development and rehabilitation of irrigation schemes in the country to increase agricultural production and generate an additional Kshs. 80 – 90 billion increase in GDP. It also prescribes introduction of new land use policy through better utilisation of high and medium potential lands, prepare new lands for cultivation by strategically developing more irrigable areas in arid and semi-arid lands for both crops and livestock and by improving market access to smallholders through better marketing. However, participation of smallholder farmers in irrigation activities can be affected by socio-economic factors such as access to credit facilities, access to extension services and marketing of produce among others. The study investigated the socioeconomic factors of smallholder irrigation on household food security in Gem Rae irrigation scheme. The study used cross-sectional survey design in which a sample of 120 farmers was interviewed using structured questionnaire. The data was analysed descriptively using percentages and frequencies. The study revealed that factors such as access to credit, size and land ownership, level of education of the household head and access to extension services had impacted negatively on farmers’ participation in irrigation activities, thereby impacting on household food security and household incomes. The study concluded that future development of smallholder irrigation needs to factor in the socio-economic trade-offs of irrigation in its suitability criteria for its development.

Effectiveness of Gravity Goods Ropeways in Market Participation of Smallholder Farmers in Uplands

Isolated from the market due to harsh terrain, low farm productivity and poor road connectivity, the majority of farmers in uphill practice subsistence farming characterized by abject poverty. Gravity Goods Ropeways (GGR) could be promising in high hills as it connects farmers to market in shortest time. Using three upland villages, this study aims to investigate whether GGR contributes to market participation and should be promoted in upland of Nepal to improve the livelihood of smallholder farmers. Six focus group discussions, 39 key informant interviews and 113 households’ surveys followed by before-after analysis were conducted to study how participation of smallholder farmers changed in input and output market due to GGR. With the much more reduced in average travel time to end market by 57% (p< 0.05), the farmers were able to transport high-quality product directly to small-scale (retailers and consumer) and large-scale (wholesaler) buyers eliminating the role of intermediaries. Additionally, GGR has significantly reduced transaction cost in terms of transportation by 43% (p< 0.05), post-harvest loss by 39% (p< 0.05), and information search creating a profitable environment for farmers to dictate and capture higher share in final selling price. Consequently, the average quantity of high-value crops (vegetable) supplied to the output market (84%), farm income (84%) and food expenditure (31%) has increased significantly (p<0.05) fulfilling the food needs of upland farmers for the entire year through the increased purchase of rice, pulses and processed food. Unlike output market, the farmers’ participation in purchasing fertilizer seeds, etc in input market has remained low as they continue to rely on traditional methods because of low cost and local applicability. Therefore, GGR should be promoted in upland of Nepal — and elsewhere with similar topographic, edaphic and demographic conditions. However, further research is required examining development impact of GGR for possible policy intervention, wider promotion, and replication.

Smallholder food crop farmers’ participation in Bank of Agriculture (BOA) loan scheme in Ogun State, Nigeria

Low participation of smallholder farmers in agricultural loans, despite efforts by governments and NGOs to make funds available for agricultural growth and development, has remained a matter of concern in Nigeria. The study analysed smallholder food crop farmers’ participation in Bank of Agriculture loan (BOA) scheme in Ogun State, Nigeria. Data were analysed for 224 smallholder food crop farmers using simple percentages, means and Probit regression. Results revealed that the mean age, years of education and household size of farmers participating in the premier financial institution’s loan scheme were 42 years, 13 years and 5 persons, respectively. Non-participants had mean age of 43 years, 9 years of education and household size of 7 persons, on average. Male farmers dominated on-farm food crop farming activities as 80% and 88% of participants and non-participants of the loan scheme, respectively were men. The study further showed the determinants of BOA loan scheme participation as: education level (p &lt; 0.01), farm size (p &lt; 0.01) extension visits (p &lt; 0.05) and farmers’ households distance to nearest BOA office (p &lt; 0.01). Contrary to expectation, membership of farmers association had negative but no significant effect on loan participation. The study concluded that intensifying adult education programmes, increasing the number of branches of BOA and promoting frequency of extension visits are crucial to achieving an increased probability of smallholder farmers’ participation in BOA loan scheme.Keywords: Bank of Agriculture, smallholder farmers, loan participation, Probit regression, Nigeria

SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ CROP COMMERCILIZATION IN THE HIGHLANDS OF EASTERN ETHIOPIA

This paper sorts out the most important factors influencing crop market participation of smallholder farmers in the highlands of Eastern Ethiopia. The study used primary data collected from 385 smallholder farmers during the year 2015. Heckman two-stage and Tobit models were employed for the analyses. Heckman model of first-stage results indicated that households’ decision to participate in crop output markets were influenced by factors such as sex of household head, farming experience, livestock holding, cultivated land size, off/non-farm income, fertilizer used, on-farm income, market distance, and crop diversification. Moreover, the second-stage results revealed that farm households’ intensity of crop output market participation was influenced by different factors such as dependency ratio, cultivated land size, education status, chemical fertilizer, and distance to market. The Tobit model result also indicated that the extent of farm household’s participation in annual crop fertilizer market as buyer is influenced by the amount of cultivated land, land allocated to khat crop, off/ non-farm income (log), amount of manure used and distance to the main road. From policy perspective, we recommend that strategies aimed at improving commercial behaviour of smallholder farmers in the study area should be directed in addressing the determining factors of both crop input and output market participation.

Determinants of non-farm livelihood diversification: evidence from rainfed-dependent smallholder farmers in northcentral Ethiopia (Woleka sub-basin)

ABSTRACTDiversifying the sources of livelihood for subsistence farmers beyond agriculture plays a significant role in reducing poverty as well as withstanding the adverse impacts of climate change. A cross-sectional survey research design has been employed to examine the factors which determine the participation of rainfed-dependent smallholder farmers in non-farm activities using a mixed methods approach. Data were obtained from 384 randomly selected households in the Woleka sub-basin of Ethiopia. Data were collected using survey questionnaires and interviews were analyzed using mean, percentage, chi-square test, t-test, one-way ANOVA, binary logistic regression model and thematic analysis. Access to adequate capital, poor infrastructure and lack of training are the major constraints which hindered farmers from undertaking non-farm activities. The regression model result revealed that several factors determine the propensity of smallholder farmers’ participation to non-farm activities. Better-off households, households led by literate and younger heads, having access to microfinance, having extension services, and having social responsibilities create engagement in non-farm economic activities. We argue that strengthening agricultural extension services, providing microfinance, entrepreneurial training and skill development, and infrastructure development would enhance the participation of smallholder farmers in non-farm activities. To achieve this, policy makers and other stakeholders need to integrate non-farm livelihood strategies into rural farming economies.

Application of Multinomial Logistic to Smallholder Farmers’ Market Participation in Northern Ghana

The contribution of agriculture to the development of a country cannot be over emphasized, likewise the role played by smallholder farmers in the production of food in developing countries such as Ghana. Hence, the research examined the factors that affect market participation of smallholder farmers in Ghana. The Ghana Living Standard Survey data as published by the Ghana Statistical Service was employed and analyzed with the application of multinomial logistic regression model. Analysis of the data in the Northern part of Ghana indicate a very low market participation relative to the national average figure of 36% which itself is considered to be low at the international level. The results further show that, out of the total food crops produced (cereals), maize takes the highest whilst millet is the lowest cereal produced in Ghana. The results also revealed that only 24.2% of the total output of cereals produced in the study area is sold. The multinomial logistic results show that being a female farmer, having access to credit, increase in farm size and household size were factors that discourage subsistence farming and encourage market-oriented farming. The study recommends the promotion of small scale farmer participation in marketing of their produce through improving access to credit, land reallocation and promotion of female farmers’ commercial participation.

English

For smallholder livestock farmers to benefit from their livestock, they need to fully participate in the market. This study identifies the determinants of market participation by smallholder livestock farmers in Botswana. The study used data collected from 132 smallholder livestock farmers in Kweneng West in 2007. A logit model was used to identify factors that determine whether smallholder farmers will participate in the market or not. The results indicate that the age of household head negatively and significantly affects market participation, implying that older farmers are less likely to participate in the market; planting crops increases the chances of market participation, as does the accessibility to market price information. The major limitation facing smallholder livestock farmers is the requirement that the animals should have a bolus (for traceability) and veterinary permits. In order to stimulate the participation of smallholder farmers in the market, policies aimed at promoting participation of youth in agriculture should be explored. In addition, policies should target service delivery improvement by all institutions involved in the marketing of cattle including those issuing cattle movement or veterinary permits. This will go a long way in increasing smallholders&rsquo; income from livestock and hence improve their living standards. Key words: Botswana, market participation, institutional constraints, transaction costs, logistic regression.

Cocoa Farming System in Indonesia and Its Sustainability Under Climate Change

The Indonesian cocoa sector has experienced tremendous growth in the past twenty five years with massive growth, driven by rapid expansion of smallholder farmer participation. Cocoa production provides the main source of income of millions smallholder farmers and their families in Indonesia. Smallholders contribute more than ninety percent of national production; the remainder comes from state-owned plantations and private estates. In parts of Indonesia, cocoa is responsible for the opening up of primary forests and the establishment of settlements in these previously forested areas. Cocoa intensification system, which increases the fragmentation of primary forests and is considered agriculturally unsustainable, is becoming common in Indonesia. This paper presents the synthesis that resulted from this review as well as the researcher’s critical appraisal of the state of the research field of intensification system and its effect under climate change which the objective remaining stakeholder relevant to the sustainable intensification of farming practices of the poor smallholder farmers in Indonesia.

Factors Influencing Smallholder Farmers Participation in IFAD-Community Based Agricultural and Rural Development Project in Katsina State

This study assessed smallholder farmers’ participation in IFAD-Community Based Agricultural and Rural Development Project in Katsina State. Data for the study were obtained by the use of structured questionnaire. Multistage sampling technique was employed to select the 698 respondents. In the first stage, a purposive sampling technique was used to select one village area that had the highest participating farmers out of the three village areas in each LGA. The second stage involved the use of systematic random sampling technique to select 12% of the population. This gave a total of three hundred and fourty nine (349) participating farmers from the twelve participating village areas. Also, 349 non-participating farmers were selected from neighbouring communities using systematic random sampling. Descriptive statistics and logit regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The result shows that 23% of the participating farmers were between the ages of 46-50 years and 91% were males. The result also shows that level of education with coefficient value of (-0.309), household size (-0.041), farm size (0.801), membership of cooperative (0.547) and extension contact (-0.283) were the factors influencing smallholder farmers participation in the project. The result further shows that inadequate capital, inadequate agricultural credits and inadequate storage facilities were the major constraints to participation in the programme. The study recommends that extension workers should assist farmers to form viable co-operatives associations and where they are in existence, efforts should be made to strengthen them for easy access to credit, farm inputs and markets for their agricultural products.

Participation of smallholders in agroforestry agri-environmental scheme: A lesson from the rural mount Kenyan region

The likelihood of smallholder farmers not participating in agroforestry agri-environmental schemes and payments for ecosystem services (PES) may be due to limited farmland endowment and formal credit constraints. These deficits may lead to an ‘exclusive club ’ of successful farmers, which are not necessarily poor, enjoying the benefits of agri-environmental schemes and PES although agri-environmental schemes and PES have been devised as a means of fostering rural sustainable development and improving the livelihood of poor smallholder farmers. Smallholder farmers in parts of rural Kenya continue to enroll in ‘The International Small Group Tree Planting Programme’ (TIST), an agri-environmental scheme, promoting agroforestry, carbon sequestration and conservation agriculture (CA). The question remains if these farmers are really poor? This study examines factors that determine the participation of smallholder farmers in TIST in parts of rural Kenya. We use survey data compiled in 2013 on 210 randomly selected smallholder farmers from Embu, Meru and Nanyuki communities; the sample consists of TIST and non-TIST members. A random utility model and logit regression were used to test a set of non-monetary and monetary factors that influence participation in the TIST. The utility function is conceptualized to give non-monetary factors, particularly the common medium of communication in rural areas – formal and informal – a central role. Furthermore, we investigate other factors (incl. credit accessibility and interest rate) that reveal the nature of farmers participating in TIST. The findings suggest that spread of information via formal and informal networks is a major driver of participation in the TIST program. Furthermore, variables such credit constrains, age and labour supply positively correlate with TIST participation, while for education the opposite is true. It is important to mention that these correlations, although somewhat consistent, were all found to be weak . The results indicate that participation in the TIST program is not influenced by farm size; therefore we argue that the TIST scheme is NOT an ‘exclusive club’ comprising wealthy and successful farmers. Older farmers’ being more likely to join the TIST is an argument for their long- rather than widely assumed short-term planning horizon and a new contribution to the literature. Given the importance of poverty alleviation and climate smart agriculture in developing countries, sustainable policy should strengthening the social and human capital as well as informal networks in rural areas. Extension services should effectively communicate benefits to less educated and credit constrained farmers.

Improving the participation of smallholder mango farmers in modern retail channels in Indonesia

Demand for fresh fruits and vegetables in Indonesia has been continuously growing as the result of increasing incomes, high growth of the urban population, and modern retail development. The growth of modern retail chains in Indonesia in the last few decades has intrigued some development experts and practitioners because it had been expected to provide greater opportunities for linking small farmers to high value globalized market chains. The modern private sector would, it was hoped, incorporate small producers with the goal of both securing supply and contributing to poverty reduction. However, in terms of mangoes, previous studies have indicated that only a very small proportion of local production is marketed to modern retail chains and/or exported. The main objective of this study is to identify the factors affecting farmers' participation in modernizing retail channels. The study randomly selected 636 mango farmers from the two main mango production zones in Indonesia, West Java and East Java provinces. The study shows that an expansion of the modernized retail segment has not always benefitted local producers, especially smallholder farmers. It is demonstrated that smallholder farmer participation could be higher when the level of commercialization in the market is high and/or retail procurement was already more modernized. Factors that increase farmer capacity to participate in the modern retail chain are irrigation, farm tools, and infrastructure. To increase smallholder farmer participation, the study suggests a policy of encouraging enforcement of quality standards at wholesale markets, technical assistance to farmers relating to value-adding postharvest activities, and improvements in rural infrastructure.

Exploration of Farmers’ Preferences and Perceptions of Maize Varieties: Implications on Development and Adoption of Quality Protein Maize (QPM) Varieties in Zimbabwe

Quality protein maize (QPM) technology is relatively new in Zimbabwe and farmer awareness of QPM was low. Participation of smallholder farmers in the development of QPM breeding objectives and dissemination strategies was solicited through participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques. Seventy two farmers participated; the farmers were involved in the Mother Baby Trial (MBT) projects in four selected villages from three districts of Zimbabwe. Data collection techniques included work-sharing, village or resource mapping, Venn diagramming, semi structured interviewing, matrix scoring and ranking and pairwise ranking. The results suggested that protein malnutrition was prevalent in the districts. Maize was the most important crop and farmers grew three types of maize, namely landrace (“Hickory King”), open pollinated varieties (OPV) and hybrid varieties all representing normal endosperm maize. Hybrids were dominant and produced mainly for sale, while “Hickory King”, although not supported by the formal seed system, continued to be produced for home consumption because of its superior taste, white kernel color, large kernel size, high kernel density, kernel hardness, and perceived weevil-resistance. Lateness and foliar disease susceptibility were the disadvantages of Hickory King. The ideal maize variety should be early-maturing, with a high yield potential, drought tolerant, foliar disease resistant and stem borer tolerant. For any QPM variety to be acceptable, farmers expected it to combine the agronomic attributes of hybrids and the grain quality characteristics of “Hickory King”, an “heirloom” variety. To effectively promote the adoption of QPM, the Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX) arm of government was the farmers' choice compared to other modes of information dissemination which were radio, television, newspaper, church NGO and councillor.

Assessment of Market Potential for Horticultural Produce for Smallholder Farmers around Mutare City, Eastern Zimbabwe

We carried out a market assessment to understand horticulture market dynamics around Mutare City, eastern Zimbabwe. We used the value chain development approach of starting from understanding what the market wants then using information gathered to inform producers of horticultural produce. This approach is underpinned by market-led production concept. Our study results highlighted opportunities for the participation of smallholder farmers in the horticulture sub-sector value chain; it provides horticulture market intelligence to smallholder farmers as to which crops to grow, when and for which market niche. There are opportunities for smallholder farmers to fill the identified horticultural produce demand gap around Mutare City, eastern Zimbabwe. Smallholder farmers could capitalize on the opportunity of horticulture produce scarcity that exists across Mutare City, so as to engage in market-led horticulture production. Our study contributes to a knowledge base of horticulture value chain development around Mutare City, eastern Zimbabwe and related areas aimed at economic development and peri-urban and urban household poverty reduction, which involves addressing the major constraints and opportunities faced between farmers and traders at marketing systems along the given horticultural value chain.

The role of input vouchers in modernizing the fresh fruit and vegetable market in Turkey

AbstractContractual arrangements between farmers and traders aiming at providing input/credit in return for output selling have been widely studied in the literature on agricultural economics. Nonetheless, there is one issue, which is barely mentioned in the literature: how to enforce the contract terms when traders offer credit in cash rather than input advances? This article aims to describe an innovation in farming contracts, used by fresh fruit and vegetable wholesalers in Turkey, which involves a kind of private voucher system. Drawing on original data collected from wholesalers—a segment in the supply chain hardly covered in the literature—we investigate the factors determining contract adoption using a two‐limit Tobit model. Our results suggest that this private voucher system contributes to supply chain coordination and facilitates smallholder farmer participation in export and supermarket channels, which are growing rapidly in this developing country.

The role of rural producer organizations in enhancing market participation of smallholder farmers in Uganda: enabling and disabling factors.

The study investigates the factors influencing the effectiveness of second-tier rural producer organizations (RPOs) in linking their members to output markets in Uganda. The percentage of farmers who sold some of their produce through the RPO was used as a proxy for effectiveness. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis indicated that RPO effectiveness was positively related to the size of a RPO and democratic leadership. On the other hand, the proportion of RPO leaders with leadership training, enforcement of internal control practices, bulking distance and size of executive committee had a significant negative effect on the effectiveness of such organizations. It was concluded that improving the effectiveness of RPOs required the (i) use of numerous sub-committee instead of many all-member meetings and smaller executive committees; (ii) dedication, respect and commitment by leaders of RPOs when imparting skills learnt in order to boost members’ morale; (iii) devising reward systems for leaders or putting in place stringent rules, such as leadership codes, to guide leader behaviour so as to prevent conflict of interest and possible elite capture; and (iv) policies guiding Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) lending conditions be reviewed to match rural producers’ economic status and seasonality of enterprises.

Smallholder farmer participation in local and regional food aid procurement:Assessing the benefits and challenges in southwestern Uganda

Local and regional food aid procurement (LRP) – the purchase and distribution of food aid within andbetween developing countries – has recently become a common occurrence. In contrast to traditionalmethods of food aid provision, which are costly cross-border operations and often slow to respond duringemergencies, LRP aims to combat food insecurity in a more effective, economical and contained manner.There is a limited amount of research concerning smallholder involvement in small-scale LRP initiatives.This article explores LRP's impact on smallholder farmers participating in a World Food Programme(WFP) procurement project in southwestern Uganda. It concludes that LRP has some benefits, includingproviding a ready market and empowering farmers, but WFP's procurement contract development,payment procedures and pricing mechanisms, and difficulties of ensuring participants' household foodsecurity, present challenges.

Agroecology and the Development of Indicators of Food Sovereignty in Cuban Food Systems

The recent volatility of food crop prices and the rising cost of inputs—fossil fuels, fertilizers, and pesticides—have made it nearly impossible for many of the world's smallholder farmers to continue managing their agroecosystems, leaving their countries dependent on ever more costly food imports. Food Sovereignty, a food system model spearheaded by La Vía Campesina and other rural social movements around the globe, represents a unique opportunity to address the vulnerability of national food systems. Thanks to its mass organizations and popular participation in national policy, Cuba is one of the few countries with the capacity to implement food sovereignty, which could help it minimize the threats posed by food price fluctuation, extreme climatic events—the island experienced three catastrophic hurricanes in 2008 alone—and the persistent U.S. hostility towards its national project. The advance of food sovereignty in Cuba, as elsewhere, requires a profound commitment to the principles of agroecology, a heightened appreciation for smallholder farmer participation in increasing food production, and the possibility to design, manage and implement such a model at the national level. Guided by the principles of agroecology, and with the express aim of advancing the struggle for food sovereignty, researchers at the Universidad Central de Las Villas (UCLV) in Villa Clara province, Cuba are developing indicators of food sovereignty for practical use at the smallholder farm level.

Alternative marketing options for small-scale farmers in the wake of changing agri-food supply chains in South Africa

With South Africa's urban population approaching 60%, supermarkets and fast food chains have become important players in the South African food system. These large players in the food sector have systematically modified their procurement practices especially with regard to fresh fruit and vegetables and are now circumventing spot markets in favour of sourcing via in-house sourcing companies who mainly procure from preferred supplier producers. This paper draws extensively from a global research programme which seeks to highlight the market changes that potentially contribute to continued exclusion of the small producers from mass consumer markets. This paper illustrates, through a series of case studies, how integration of small-scale farmers into the urban retail market can be facilitated and how the challenges posed by the changing food system could possibly be overcome. The case studies illustrate various initiatives through which small-scale farmers and agribusinesses can be integrated into mainstream agri-food systems and may be used as models for an innovative approach to include small-scale farmers while still maintaining profitable business operations. They highlight the need for a multi actor approach for the successful participation of smallholder farmers in order to allow them to join the supply chain at any point within the channel.