Partial Interval Recording Research Articles

Use of an Antecedent Intervention to Decrease Vocal Stereotypy of a Student With Autism in the General Education Classroom

This study examined the use of an antecedent-based intervention to reduce the vocal stereotypy of a student diagnosed with Autism within the general education classroom. The student displayed frequent nonfunctional speech and disruptive vocal sounds. An antecedent-based intervention, involving the use of qualitatively different cards—to cue the student when it was appropriate or inappropriate to engage in vocal stereotypy—was designed and implemented. An adaptive alternating treatment design was utilized and conditions were randomized and counterbalanced across treatment sessions. Data on vocal stereotypy were collected using partial interval recording. The results indicated the participant was successful in discriminating between cues and decreased stereotypy during intervention compared to baseline conditions. Similar findings were found when the intervention was implemented across a second school setting.

Implementation of a relationship-based school readiness intervention: A multidimensional approach to fidelity measurement for early childhood

The implementation efforts of 65 early childhood professionals involved in the Getting Ready project, an integrated, multi-systemic intervention that promotes school readiness through parent engagement for children from birth to age five, were investigated. Digital videotaped records of professionals engaged in home visits with families across both treatment and comparison conditions were coded objectively using a partial-interval recording system to identify and record early childhood professionals' implementation of intervention strategies and their effectiveness in promoting parent engagement and interest in their child. Adherence, quality of intervention delivery, differentiation between groups, and participant responsiveness were assessed as multiple dimensions of fidelity. Early childhood professionals in the treatment group relative to the comparison group demonstrated greater frequency of adherence to some intervention strategies, as well as higher rates of total strategy use. In addition, significant positive relationships were found between years of experience, education and quality of intervention delivery. Quality of intervention delivery was different by program type (Early Head Start versus Head Start). Adherence in the treatment group was correlated with the rate of contact between parent and early childhood professional during the home visit.

Detecting changes in simulated events II: Using variations of momentary time‐sampling to measure changes in duration events

AbstractThe extent to which a greater proportion of small behavior changes could be detected with momentary time‐sampling (MTS) was evaluated by (a) combining various interval sizes of partial‐interval recording (PIR) with 20 s, 30 s, 1 min MTS and (b) using variable interval sizes of MTS that were based on means of 20 s and 1 min. For each targeted percentage, low, moderate, and high inter‐response times (IRTs) to event‐run ratios were compared with reversal designs to determine whether sensitivity increased with either variation of MTS. The results showed that (a) combinations of 30 s and 1 min MTS/PIR yielded increased sensitivity over MTS alone; however, the increased sensitivity was offset by an increased probability of generating false positives and (b) variable‐interval MTS produced comparable sensitivity to fixed‐interval MTS. Thus, none of the methods increased detection of small behavior changes (decreased false negatives) without also increasing false positives. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Detecting changes in simulated events using partial‐interval recording and momentary time sampling

AbstractIn a series of three studies, we evaluated simulated data with reversal designs to determine whether partial‐interval recording (PIR) and momentary time sampling (MTS) detected changes that were evident with continuous measures. The results from Study 1 showed that MTS with interval sizes up to 30 s detected most of the moderate and large changes in duration events and MTS with interval sizes up to 1 min detected most large changes in duration events. By comparison, PIR with 10‐s intervals detected approximately half of all changes in duration events. The results of Study 2 showed that only 10‐s PIR reliably detected most small, moderate, and large changes in frequency events. The results of Study 3 showed that PIR with 10‐s intervals generated a relatively high percentage of false positives for duration events, whereas MTS did not. As a whole, the results support previous findings, but also provide new guidelines for the use of PIR and MTS. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Scatter plot analysis of excessive daytime sleepiness and severe disruptive behavior in adults with Prader-Willi syndrome: A pilot study

Individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) are at risk for excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and disruptive behavior. This pilot study explores temporal characteristics of EDS and severe disruptive behavior across time of day and day of week in seven individuals with PWS (aged between 33 and 49 years) of whom five were matched to controls. Direct care staff and/or parents used a scatter plot (i.e., 2-h partial interval recording) to collect data during 28 successive days. Overall frequency of EDS and severe disruptive behavior was low in both groups. Individuals with PWS generally showed more EDS when there were no scheduled activities compared to when activities were scheduled, specifically in the afternoon and in the evening and during the weekend. Scatter plot methodology may be useful in identifying situations that evoke excessive sleepiness and severe disruptive behaviors in people with PWS.

A COMPARISON OF MOMENTARY TIME SAMPLING AND PARTIAL‐INTERVAL RECORDING FOR EVALUATING FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS

In the current study, momentary time sampling (MTS) and partial-interval recording (PIR) were compared to continuous-duration recording of stereotypy and to the frequency of self-injury during a treatment analysis to determine whether the recording method affected data interpretation. Five previously conducted treatment analysis data sets were analyzed by creating separate graphic displays for each measurement method (duration or frequency, MTS, and PIR). An expert panel interview and structured criterion visual inspection were used to evaluate treatment effects across measurement methods. Results showed that treatment analysis interpretations based on both discontinuous recording methods often matched those based on frequency or duration recording; however, interpretations based on MTS were slightly more likely to match those based on duration and those based on PIR were slightly more likely to match those based on frequency.

Using response latency within a preference assessment.

This study evaluated the effects of using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) with a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) resetting time schedule to reduce stereotypy in a child with Rett Syndrome. The primary purpose of the investigation was to compare latency and choice as dependent measures to identify reinforcers for use within a DRO/A contingency using a resetting time schedule. The treatment contingencies were arranged to decrease the rate of stereotypy and increased functional play skills. Overall, our results support the use of latency to respond as a dependent measure for selecting reinforcers. Keywords: Response Latency, Preference Assessment, Automatic Behavior ********** When working with children who engage in inappropriate behavior, it is relatively easy to identify a social function. Through observation and manipulation of environmental variables, previous research suggests that most problem behavior is maintained by a social function (Iwata et al., 1994). Treatment for behaviors that serve an automatic function are more difficult to identify because social reinforcers are not identified. Specifically, maintaining contingencies are extremely difficult to manipulate because the behavior itself provides reinforcement (Iwata et al., 1994). Often, an attempt is made to identify activities or objects that can compete with the behavior itself (Alberto & Troutman, 2005). Alternatively, attempts can be made to identify substitutable stimuli to replace sensory reinforcement obtained by engaging in the behavior (Piazza, Hanley, & Fisher, 1996). In addition, it has been demonstrated in the literature that substitutable stimuli are (a) preferred and (b) result in decreased levels of problem behavior when presented non-contingently. The purpose of this study was to identify effective reinforcers for use in a treatment package for a young child who engaged in stereotypic behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement. By doing so, we further sought to compare the use of choice versus response latency as a dependent measure for use within a preference assessment. We hypothesized that more effective reinforcers would be identified using response latency as a dependent measure. Specifically, because these stimuli were shown to decrease the occurrence of automatic behavior within the preference assessment, we hypothesized that they were substitutable to the behavior. Method Participants and Setting The participant was a 6-year-old female diagnosed with Rett Syndrome. She was referred by her classroom teacher for the assessment and treatment of stereotypy. Stereotypy was reported to occur at high rates in home and school settings. All observations took place in a 3.m by 4.5m room located adjacent to her classroom. The room was equipped with a two-way window for unobtrusive observation. Data Collection, and Interobserver Agreement The dependent variables were (a) inappropriate vocalizations, which were defined as loud, raspy, noises in the back of the throat occurring in brief bursts; (b) spitting which was defined as having the tongue completely out of the mouth making a spitting noise; (c) hand wringing which was defined as rubbing the pads on the fingers of one hand against the pads on the fingers of the other hand together, usually done by the shoulder; (d) hand flapping defined as moving her hands up and down either by the hips or shoulders; (e) latency, which was defined as the amount of time, in seconds, between the presentation of an item and the first occurrence of a stereotypic response; and (f) choice, which was defined as reaching for one of two objects within a concurrent operant format. Data were collected using three different observational systems: (a) partial-interval recording, (b) event recording, and (c) latency recording. All partial interval recording was collected via videotape and scored later using a 6-s recording system. …

Comparison of direct observational methods for measuring stereotypic behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders

We compared partial-interval recording (PIR) and momentary time sampling (MTS) estimates against continuous measures of the actual durations of stereotypic behavior in young children with autism or pervasive developmental disorder—not otherwise specified. Twenty-two videotaped samples of stereotypy were scored using a low-tech duration recording method, and relative durations (i.e., proportions of observation periods consumed by stereotypy) were calculated. Then 10, 20, and 30 s MTS and 10 s PIR estimates of relative durations were derived from the raw duration data. Across all samples, PIR was found to grossly overestimate the relative duration of stereotypy. Momentary time sampling both over- and under-estimated the relative duration of stereotypy, but with much smaller errors than PIR (Experiment 1). These results were replicated across 27 samples of low, moderate and high levels of stereotypy (Experiment 2).

Increasing Play Skills of Children With Autism Using Activity Schedules and Correspondence Training

Play is a critical component of preschool children's development. For children with autism, restricted play skills eliminate common tools needed to build independent performance and peer relationships. The purpose of this study was to investigate a strategy to improve the independent performance of preschoolers with autism during playtime in an inclusive setting. A multiple-baseline design across subjects was employed to determine the effectiveness of correspondence training and activity schedules on the on-task and play correspondence behavior of 4 preschoolers with autism. Partial-interval recording was used to measure on-task behavior and experimenter prompts, whereas a frequency count was used for on-schedule behavior. Procedural integrity and social validity were also measured. Results of the study indicated that all 4 participants' on-task and play correspondence behavior increased, while experimenter prompts gradually decreased.

A critical review of the use of time sampling in observational research

Observational methods are under-utilised in nursing research, but have a number of benefits. This paper outlines two approaches to collecting observational data, namely continuous sampling and time sampling. Time sampling is critically reviewed, and methodological considerations when adopting this method are discussed. A major issue is the reliability in estimating frequency and duration of observed behaviours. Researchers have shown that the selection of the appropriate interval length is critical to this reliability, emphasising the need for pilot work to define and estimate average duration of behaviours to be observed. The paper outlines conditions when either of the two sampling methods, partial interval recording and momentary time sampling, may be reasonably selected. However, continuous sampling may be preferable for observing complex behaviours involving at least two participants.

Results of barbiturate antiepileptic drug discontinuation on antipsychotic medication dose in individuals with intellectual disability

Five individuals with intellectual disability prescribed both a barbiturate antiepileptic drug (AED) and an antipsychotic medication were identified in a public residential facility. It was hypothesized that antipsychotic medication was prescribed at doses higher than necessary as a result of inadvertent barbiturate AED behavioural side-effects thought to be part of the underlying psychiatric or behavioural condition. To test this hypothesis, barbiturate AEDs were gradually reduced, and replaced with either carbamazepine or valproic acid, and antipsychotic medication was gradually reduced as well. Challenging behaviours, such as physical aggression, self-injurious behaviour and property destruction, were measured with a frequency count or partial interval recording, and retrospectively analysed for time periods of approximately 60 days before phenobarbital reduction, after phenobarbital discontinuation and after the lowest antipsychotic medication dose. Challenging behaviour collectively decreased by 81.5% after barbiturate discontinuation, mean antipsychotic medication dose significantly decreased from 146 mg day(-1) (SD = 98) to 106 mg day(-1) (SD = 88) chlorpromazine equivalence, and antipsychotic medication was discontinued in the cases of two individuals. Compared to the prebarbiturate AED reduction period, challenging behaviour collectively decreased by 96.3% after the lowest antipsychotic medication dose, which confirmed that reduced antipsychotic medication was not achieved at the expense of behaviour deterioration. The data supported the hypothesis that discontinuation of barbiturate AEDs results in decreased challenging behaviour and less antipsychotic medication.

Use of the Structural Analysis Hypothesis Testing Model to Improve Social Interactions via Peer-Mediated Intervention

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of a structural analysis model as a vehicle for improving social interactions via peer-mediated interventions. Nondisabled peers were employed during structural analysis assessments to examine the predictive utility of this process for peer-mediated social interventions for students with disabilities. Five elementary-age students diagnosed with moderate disabilities served as the participants. Five elementary-age general education students were used as assessment and treatment agents in an effort to determine the viability of nondisabled peers in the assessment process. Assessments and treatment protocols were completed in the special education classroom. Generalization probes were then obtained in the general education classroom. Variables identified during assessment as conducive and not conducive to heightened levels of appropriate behavior and social interactions were combined into preferred and nonpreferred treatments. These treatments were evaluated using an alternating treatments design. Data were obtained using partial interval recording. The results of this study demonstrated that structural analysis can be conducted to include nondisabled students to successfully identify antecedents of appropriate social behavior from which effective peer-mediated social interventions can develop. This study supports previous research findings that peer-mediated strategies can serve as a framework from which to fine-tune social skills interventions through the use of structural analysis for students with moderate disabilities.

The stereotypy analysis: An instrument for examining environmental variables associated with differential rates of stereotypic behavior

The Stereotypy Analysis, a means of analyzing environmental variables associated with differential rates of stereotypic behavior, was conducted with five persons having moderate to profound developmental disabilities. The process involves partial-interval recording of the occurrence of targeted behaviors and the presence/absence of specific environmental events. The Stereotypy Analysis was able to detect environmental events associated with stereotypic responding for 3 of the 5 subjects. Based on the results of the Stereotypy Analysis, indicated and not-indicated interventions were implemented for two subjects. The data obtained using the Stereotypy Analysis were useful in determining effective interventions for those subjects. Providing activities and prompts every 15 s, later faded to every 30 s, reduced handmouthing from a mean of 40% of intervals to 13% for one subject. Providing prompts every 30 s to engage in an activity decreased body rocking from 60% to 15% for the other. Effects for both interventions were replicated using A-B-A-B designs. The not-indicated intervention was unsuccessful for one subject; it suggested multiple control of the behavior for the other. Implications for behavioral theory and practice are discussed.

Observer error in the use of momentary time sampling and partial interval recording

The accuracy of 60 first-year psychology degree students using either the method of momentary time sampling (MTS) or partial interval recording (PIR) was estimated by agreement measures in an independent groups study. The purpose of the study was to investigate possible method differences in a design that maximized their comparability. After training, observers were randomly allocated to MTS or PIR methods and, after further practice, recorded either one, two or three behaviours (namely, reading, writing, hand-clasping) from a constructed 10-minute videotape of human studying behaviour from which a criterion record had been derived. Results showed MTS introduced significantly less error into observers' records than PIR across all levels of complexity. However, there was no generally significant increase in error with increasing complexity and PIR showed relatively more accuracy in recording writing behaviour. Despite the apparent support offered to practitioners for the use of MTS in behavioural investigations, the experimenters qualify their findings and indicate the need for a more extensive series of experiments comparing these methods.

Momentary Time Sampling and Partial Interval Recording: A Rejoinder to Adams (1991)

Momentary time sampling (MTS) is an unbiased method of estimating the duration of time for which a behaviour occurs, unlike partial interval recording (PIR) which introduces bias. This lack of bias does not, however, permit the researcher to make the further assumption that MTS allows multiple behaviours to be monitored accurately or in a way that is sensitive to behaviour change. Further considerations of the use of MTS and PIR are discussed.

Comments from JABA Readers

Comments from JABA Readers

The Use of Momentary Time Sampling and Partial Interval Recording in Behavioural Research

The inherent properties of momentary time sampling (MTS) and partial interval recording (PIR) are examined. Findings derived from computer simulation investigations are discussed in terms of the mode of operation of the two time-sampling techniques. It is seen that the advantage of MTS is that it can, under certain restricted circumstances, estimate absolute duration of behaviour occurring. The important disadvantage of MTS is that it is relatively insensitive when estimating degree of change of behaviour. In contrast, although PIR cannot accurately measure absolute duration it is more sensitive to behaviour change than is MTS. It is concluded that the practitioner who wishes to use one of these methods of time sampling must carefully consider the aims and possible effects of the investigation before deciding which method to use.

METHODS OF TIME SAMPLING: A REAPPRAISAL OF MOMENTARY TIME SAMPLING AND PARTIAL INTERVAL RECORDING

We compared the accuracy of momentary time sampling (MTS) and partial interval recording (PIR) in estimating both absolute behavioral levels and relative change. A computer randomly generated runs of pseudobehavior varying in duration and rate and simulated MTS and PIR of each run. Results indicated that when estimating absolute behavioral levels, duration rather than rate should be used as the dependent measure, and MTS is more accurate than PIR. In contrast, PIR is the more sensitive method for detecting relative changes in behavioral levels, although, at high rates, PIR tends to underestimate the degree of change.

Accuracy of observational data with whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time-sampling recording techniques

The purpose of the study was to compare the accuracies obtained from whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time-sample recording procedures. Two types of accuracies were defined. Between-methods accuracy is the degree to which an observer using a particular recording method agrees with a standard using a continuous recording method. Within-methods accuracy is the degree to which an observer and a standard agree when both use the same recording method. Fifty-four undergraduate students viewed a videotape of a woman twisting her hair and recorded the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior using one of the three recording methods. Tapes were divided into segments with low, intermediate, and high rates of behavior. Partial and whole interval recording obtained poorer between-methods accuracies than momentary time sampling. Results showed that whole interval and momentary time-sampling procedures yielded higher within-method accuracies than partial interval recording. Thus, momentary time-sampling recording provided the advantages of both greater representativeness and as few or fewer observer errors than whole or partial interval recording procedures. Use of the interval recording methods by researchers must be justifiable within this framework.