Parking Supply Research Articles

Locating the green space paradox: A study of gentrification and public green space accessibility in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

This study examined gentrification patterns associated with eighteen new public green spaces created across Philadelphia, Pennsylvania around 2010. Our study had three primary goals: 1) Characterize the local relationships between green space creation and gentrification across the city; 2) Investigate how different models of ownership and management approaches impact the public accessibility of newly created green spaces, 3) Examine connections between the public accessibility of new parks and the gentrification of the neighborhood. We drew on data from the 2000 US Census and the 2011–2016 American Community Survey Estimate data at the Block Group level, a field survey on public accessibility for parks that explores ownership, management, use/users, and quality, and semi-structured interviews conducted with six key informants from July-October 2018. We used Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) to examine local patterns of gentrification and qualitative analysis to examine the public accessibility of the public green spaces and experiences of residents and community leaders during the park development process. We found that public green spaces may anchor gentrification processes. Additionally, new spaces in wealthy neighborhoods were more publicly accessible than parks in gentrifying neighborhoods. Many spaces located in gentrifying neighborhoods relied on private management and had surveillance strategies, including cameras to security personnel. Our research points towards several key paradoxes associated with park development that can inform policy decisions regarding equitable park provision.

Optimization of reservation parking space configurations in city centers through an agent-based simulation

Parking demand is generally larger than parking supply in city centers. And uneven distribution of parking demand often leads to over-consumption in the popular places. To balance the existing conflicts, parking reservation system (PRS) is commonly adopted to manage and configure the reservation parking spaces. The aim of this paper is to optimize social benefits and parking lot revenue through configuring reasonable reservation proportion for each off-street public parking lot in the urban area, which can provide operation advice for parking management departments. Firstly, an agent-based simulation model which presents the coexistence of reservation and non-reservation parking vehicles was established, and parking selection used the predicted parking space occupancy rate of a target parking lot at a predicted vehicle arrival time. Then, genetic algorithm was used in simulations to optimize the solution of combining different reserved parking space proportion configurations. Finally, Wulin CBD, Hangzhou, China was applied as a case to analyze and optimize the reserved parking space proportion. The Single-objective optimization, such as social benefits, parking lot revenue, and multi-objective optimization were both discussed and analyzed. Results show that through optimizing parking reservation proportion configuration can directly and effectively improve social benefits or parking lot revenue. Further analysis indicated that optimizing social benefits and parking lot revenue are two conflicting objectives. The reserved parking space proportion in popular parking lots should be reduced as much as possible under the optimization of social benefits.

Moving to Private-Car-Restricted and Mobility-Served Neighborhoods: The Unspectacular Workings of a Progressive Mobility Plan

Despite ongoing changes in housing construction around parking requirements, few studies have been undertaken on travel practice and vehicle ownership once homes have been built in line with new requirements and occupied. This study focused on the experience and travel practices of residents in two specific cases involving new requirements in Sweden. It was based on interviews and questionnaires with residents before and after they moved into the two new blocks of apartments. A relatively restricted supply of parking was compensated for with subsidized mobility services for the residents, e.g., car and bike (sharing) clubs. The results indicated a decrease in car ownership in both blocks, as well as a decrease in the frequency of car travel in one of them. There were indications that use of public transport had increased. Our analysis illustrates the roles that parking and mobility services played over time in establishing the residents’ travel habits. The process that shaped the new residents’ car ownership and travel patterns was, in part, quite slow and unspectacular compared with the intentions and expectations of the stakeholders involved as regards to how car ownership and travel habits would change. We discuss a spectrum of everyday life conditions, which together with parking requirements and mobility services can stimulate the growth of urban mobility practices other than those based on private car ownership.

The dynamics of transportation networks

ABSTRACTAlan Wilson’s contributions to the development of dynamic models of network evolution are presented in this manuscript. His ideas, first represented in the dynamic retail model, were transferred to the task of modelling the evolution of transport networks. He also anticipated the question of handling multi-modal situations. Indeed, his model could be formulated in a way that the focus could be on the effect of given variables – for example public transport fares or parking provision and charging – and hence of exploring ways of using these models in a policy context.

SOFT SYSTEM METHODOLOGY AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN DESIGNING PUBLIC PARK

ABSTRACT
 In DKI Jakarta, the quantity and quality of public parks need to be increased since they are not well cared of as most public spaces which resulted in the absence of visitors. Hypotheses arise that this condition may be related to inaccurate public park management. This paper is an attempt to acquire a conceptual framework related to competency requirements needed in designing public parks that focus on Soft System Methodology and Resource Management. This is a literature study coupled with interviews with those who are involved in the provision and use of public parks. Through Delphi's analysis, it reveales that a successful design of public park entails non-technical competency requirements related to "building relationships" involved with all parties integrated.
 
 Keyword: Project Human Resource Management, Public Park Design, Soft System Methodology

Optimal parking supply in bi-modal transportation network considering transit scale economies

In this paper, we investigate the optimal parking supply when considering the transit scale economies in a bi-modal network. Firstly, we formulate auto travel cost and transit travel cost and discuss the scale economies of transit service. Considering passenger’s waiting time, travel time and in-vehicle crowding cost, the function of transit travel cost is no longer monotone, but a “U” shape. Secondly, we derive the bi-modal equilibrium without parking restraint and analyze the uniqueness of the equilibrium. Then, we investigate the bi-modal equilibrium with parking restraint. When parking spots are inadequate, drivers would depart earlier to obtain parking spots and deadweight loss arises from competition for parking spots. It was found that parking permits distribution is very efficient in reducing the deadweight loss in Zhang et al. (2011). Thirdly, we study optimal parking supply with the schemes of no management and parking permits managements and analytically discuss the implication of restricting parking supply and parking permits distribution in a single OD pair. It is revealed that total travel costs do not always decrease as the provision of parking spots increases and there is an optimal provision of parking spots at the destination. Meanwhile, the optimal parking provision is discussed in the various schemes of parking permit distribution and trading with consideration of scale economy of transit in a many-to-one network. Finally, numerical examples show that restricting parking supply is an effective measure to reduce system cost.

Parking management for promoting sustainable transport in urban neighbourhoods. A review of existing policies and challenges from a German perspective

ABSTRACTThe organisation of parking is a key challenge to more sustainable mobility in urban areas, as its pricing and availability affect the rates of private car ownership and use. However, changing parking policies is a challenging issue for local politicians and planners because residents frequently oppose changes or restrictions to conditions they have taken for granted such as on-street parking in a public space. The aim of this paper is firstly to assess how the parking policy of an urban neighbourhood can be structured to contribute to more sustainable mobility and to increase liveability in the neighbourhood. The second aim is to apply the policies reviewed to an example neighbourhood. For this purpose, we systematically reviewed academic literature and identified five types of relevant parking policies: (i) maximum parking requirements, (ii) physical detachment of residence and parking space, (iii) residential parking permits and the limitation of available parking space, (iv) performance-based pricing and (v) parking as a demand management strategy. We discovered that most research focuses on econometric models about parking and that studies rarely address the effects of parking on the quality of life in neighbourhoods. Therefore, we need further research regarding the relationship of parking and liveability. We conclude that for the implementation of such parking policies in an example neighbourhood, the municipality needs to develop a mobility vision for its city. It has to understand parking as a tool for transportation demand management to increase the acceptance of parking policy concepts and to avoid spillover problems. Finally, in the German case, as in most other countries, states and municipalities need to redesign their legal frameworks to be able to manage parking supply better and to react to changes related to digital developments and parking. The findings have implications for other European neighbourhoods regarding the transfer from research to local circumstances and applications for the whole city.

Optimal storage and loading zones within surface parking facilities for privately owned automated vehicles

There is much speculation about the prospective impacts of automated vehicles (AVs) on parking supply and behaviour, however the literature contains little quantitative evidence. In this study, we develop a mixed-integer non-linear optimisation (MINLP) model of revenue maximisation to design parking facility layouts for privately-owned automated cars that include separate vehicle-storage and drop-off/pick-up zones (DOPU, or alternatively termed “PUDO zones”). The control variable is the allocation of space between these two competing uses. The model balances between revenue derived from parking (including revenue during activity time) and costs associated with the range of AVs’ parking and loading/unloading activities. Via numerical analysis of an archetypal shopping centre's parking facility, the authors demonstrate that the model responds intuitively to the stimulus of systematically varying the input parameters. This study is intended to provide an incremental advance to support researchers and practitioners tasked with quantifying the impacts of AVs on the parking system.

Modelling and managing the integrated morning-evening commuting and parking patterns under the fully autonomous vehicle environment

This study is the first in the literature to analytically investigate the traffic dynamics of the integrated morning and evening commutes when daily trips are completed with autonomous vehicles (AVs). Given the parking locations of AVs resulting from the morning commute, firstly we analyse the evening commuting pattern, at which no traveller can reduce the individual travel cost given other AVs’ times of departures from the parking spaces. The equilibrium traffic pattern at the evening commute is then integrated with the morning commute, where equilibrium choices of departure time from home and parking location are derived and analysed. We then study the integrated morning-evening commuting pattern at the system optimum and develop the road tolling scheme to achieve the system optimum. Furthermore, this study analyses the optimal AV parking supply strategy to minimise the total system cost, which is comprised of the total social parking cost and the total daily travel cost under either user equilibrium or system optimum traffic pattern. We also illustrate the modelling insights through numerical studies regarding relationship among traffic efficiency, tolling schemes and AV parking supply plans. This study highlights the differences in daily commuting and parking patterns between the AV situation and the non-AV situation, and sheds light on how traffic and parking should be managed or planned in the future.

Evaluation of Thematic Parks in Bandung City Based on Spatial Equity Perspective

The existence of Green Open Spaces (GOS) in big cities tend to decrease and not evenly distributed. Whereas, the role of GOS is essential for ecological, social, and economic function, also as the city’s aesthetic. Bandung City attempted to meet the needs of GOS by developing many thematic parks, the park which added by unique theme. Thematic parks were built to improve citizen happiness index, but its locations were mostly located in the city center as it is a revitalization of many old city parks. This research is addressed to evaluate the thematic parks provision from spatial equity perspective which seen from the distribution pattern and service range. The distribution pattern analyzed by nearest neighbor analysis of GIS while the service range will be viewed both from normative sight and user. The results showed that the provision of thematic parks in Bandung City only focused on the particular area and had lack of service coverage which indicates spatial injustice. Some areas oversupply and at the same time not serviced at all by thematic parks. None of the thematic parks meets the city scale category. People feel the presence of thematic parks in their neighborhood is very beneficial. Proximity distance is not only the main reason for visiting the park but also influenced by attractiveness and the suitability of the theme with the community’s characteristics.

Demand for parks and perceived accessibility as key determinants of urban park use behavior

Even though urban parks are widely recognized to contribute to the well-being of urban dwellers, the extent to which the potential benefits are realized is not just about park provision alone, but is to a large extent determined by park use behavior of urban dwellers. Park use behavior is an area that has attracted a significant amount of studies but one particular determinant of park use that has received little attention is park use demand, which is defined as an individual’s intention and commitment to use parks for a range of reasons. In this study, we applied the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to identify the key determinants of park use demand and park use behavior. A park use demand and behavior model was thereafter developed based on TPB, and tested using structural equation modelling (SEM) based on data collected from door-to-door household survey in four study sites in Singapore (n = 597). The results showed that residents’ attitude, subjective norm, and perceived accessibility have significant and positive effects on their park use demand and behavior. Among these variables, attitude had the strongest influence on park used demand, while demand and perceived accessibility showed the highest impact on park use behavior. Perceived accessibility significantly had a stronger explanatory and predictive power than physical accessibility in accounting for changes in park use demand and behavior. We also discussed the implications of our results on park planning and management.

Yellow Brick Roadmap to Demand-Based Parking Pricing: Findings from Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C. (the District) has been a national leader with its progressive approach to parking management. Owing to the District’s strong housing and employment growth over the past decade, the District Department of Transportation (DDOT) needs a program to balance the competing parking needs of residents, commuters, visitors, and businesses. Using Federal funding from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Value Pricing Pilot Program, DDOT planned and implemented a demand-based parking pricing pilot program in the Penn Quarter and Chinatown neighborhoods. The results of the pilot program confirmed that demand-based pricing programs can be both cost-efficient and effective, and highlighted a path to expanding demand-based pricing Districtwide. Using lessons learned from this project, practitioners will be better prepared to plan their own demand-based pricing programs, positioning themselves to effectively balance parking supply and demand in their own communities. The paper discusses the impacts of demand based pricing on a range of metrics such as parking search times, cruising, occupancy, and length of stay. It also assesses the impacts of the strategies on the larger transportation system and the study area.

Bikes or Bust? Analyzing the Impact of Bicycle Infrastructure on Business Performance in San Francisco

Transportation agencies at the local, state, and federal levels in the United States (U.S.) have shown a growing interest in expanding bicycle infrastructure, given its link to mode shift and safety goals. These projects, however, are far from universally accepted. Business owners have been particularly vocal opponents, claiming that bicycle infrastructure will diminish sales or fundamentally change the character of their neighborhoods. Using the case of San Francisco, this research explores the relationship between bicycle infrastructure and business performance in two ways: change in sales over time, and a comparison of sales for new and existing businesses. An ordinary least squares regression is used to model the change in sales over time, isolating the effect of location on bicycle infrastructure while controlling for characteristics of the business, corridor, and surrounding neighborhood. Through a series of t-tests, average sales for businesses that pre-date bicycle infrastructure and for those that opened after the installation of such projects are compared. Ultimately, the research suggests that location on bicycle infrastructure and changes in on-street parking supply generally did not have a significant effect on the change in sales, with a few exceptions. Businesses that sell goods for the home or auto-related goods and services saw a significant decline in sales when located on corridors with bike lanes. New and existing businesses generally had similar sales, though not across the board. New restaurants and grocery stores had significantly higher sales than their existing counterparts, suggesting bicycle infrastructure may attract more upmarket businesses in those industries.

When will car owners abandon car driving? Analysis based on a survey of the parking experiences of people in Changsha, China

An appropriate parking supply in cities should not only satisfy car travel demands but also restrict the number of car trips to reduce congestion and carbon emissions on road networks. This paper analyzes when car owners will abandon car driving based on a survey of the parking experiences of people in Changsha, China. The results indicate that car owners are most likely to abandon driving when the total time expenditure (including the search time and walking time) exceeds 20 min or the walking distance between a car park and a destination exceeds 400 m. In addition, car owners’ decisions regarding different trip purposes (commuting, business, hospital trips, shopping and entertainment activities) are compared. Multinomial logistic regression models and correspondence analysis methods are applied to identify the factors influencing car owners’ decisions. The results show that public transport and the parking pricing level near work places have a substantial impact on people’s decisions: people will more readily abandon driving when the travel time of public transit decreases; age, occupation and annual household income have a significant influence on people’s parking condition preferences for business trips and trips to hospitals; and the factor that primarily influences the mode choice for shopping and entertainment trips is annual household income. The outcome of this study can provide a basis for determining the optimal parking supply level and facilitate the realization of sustainable transportation.

Public Open Space in Realizing Sustainable Urban Development (Study: Environmental Park in East Jakarta, Indonesia)

Environmental Park has a role as a social space that function as a place where people could enjoy recreation, social interaction, educational space, and evacuation facilities. The importance of the availability of Environmental Park as a public open space is a challenge facing of urban areas. Limited land and the domination of private land ownership are often obstacles in the provision of Environmental Parks. This study aims to measure how far the successful use of the Environmental Park in Settlements could improve the quality of life of urban communities. The measurement of the success level is done by looking at the accessibility criteria, giving pleasure and interest, having a sense of place, comfort and attachment to the citizens. The study was carried out at 11 Environmental Parks in Duren Sawit District, namely Bambu Kuning Park, Cempaka Taman Cengkir Park, Taman Duren Sawit Indah, Jl.IG.Ngurah Rai Park, Kesenian Park, Lembah Palem Park, Malaka Selatan 2 Park, Pondok Kopi 8 Park, Rusun Klender Park and Viaduct Klender Park will be evaluated to measure the level of success. Evaluation is based on people’s perceptions of the Environmental Park using a questionnaire. Random samples, using descriptive analysis and Qualitative Variation Index (IQV) to measure their achievement. From the results of the study the success rate of utilizing the overall he 11 environmental parks was not successful as a public open space. Finally, the existence of the Environmental Park is very necessary in urban areas and can contribute to realizing sustainable urban development.

Review of Malaysian current practice in supply/demand of parking in the hospital

Parking has long been an issue in government hospital, especially the one which are located within urban environment. In view to the fact that private cars are the preferred mode of choice for commuting in Malaysia, the issue could not get any better. This technical paper attempts to evaluate the supply and demand of parking in public hospital. Secondary data are obtained from various parking guidelines. License Plate method is used to collect the parking demand data as a primary data for a period of 12 hours at public hospitals. The actual parking demand is found to be higher than the provided parking space at all public hospitals under investigation. The actual parking demand is found in close trend with parking requirement by JPBD.

Use of Open Data to Assess Cyclist Safety in London

This study develops a predictive model for cycling collisions in London. Specifically, the effects of bus lanes, parking or loading facilities, and multilane roads on the risk of cycling collisions are considered. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first such predictive collision model that develops covariates to measure the characteristics of different types of road infrastructure within zones. A kernel density estimator is used to identify 90 collision hotspots. Each hotspot is populated with information regarding the highway infrastructure within it. A multiple linear regression model tests for the statistical significance of the infrastructure variables. Bus lanes, multilane roads, and 30-mph speed limits are found to affect cycle collision counts, whereas junction density has the largest impact on collision density. Speed limits of 20 mph affect collision counts to a lesser degree than 30 mph, indicating potential safety improvement from reducing speed limits. One-way roads are found to reduce the risk of collisions, along with the provision of priority junctions. This infers that other junction types, such as roundabouts and signalized junctions, present a higher collision risk. The models produce conflicting results on parking or loading provision. The models are expanded to include sociodemographic variables, such as population and employment. The combined model offers no performance improvement over the infrastructure-only model, although a potential link between public transport provision and reducing cycle collisions warrants further investigation.

Bicycle parking: a systematic review of scientific literature on parking behaviour, parking preferences, and their influence on cycling and travel behaviour

ABSTRACTCycling is experiencing a revival in many cities. Research has focused on the determinants of cycling – in particular the role of the built environment and road infrastructure. Bicycle parking has received little attention – even though bicycles are parked most of the time. This article reviews the scientific literature on bicycle parking and identifies existing gaps in research and knowledge. The review analyses 94 peer-reviewed papers identified through a search in Scopus and Web of Science, in December 2017. The annual number of papers increased 15-fold between 1995 and 2017. Overall, the level of evidence on the importance of bicycle parking is limited. The majority of studies are based on cross-sectional data with the presence of parking as a binary independent variable. Most studies focus on bicycle parking at public transport stops and at work places. Few studies report on bicycle parking throughout cities, and hardly any on parking at residential locations. Bicycle parking supply and quality appears to be a determinant of cycling for current and potential cyclists. Our findings can serve as input for an evidence-based debate on the role of bicycle parking. For practitioners, our research supports investment in bicycle parking, but acknowledges that a proper evaluation of such initiatives needs to be conducted to increase the level of evidence.

Private Car Users’ Willingness to Pay for Designated Parking Spaces in Ile-Ife, Nigeria

The study examined the private car users’ willingness to pay for designated parking spaces in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. This is with a view to providing information for sustainable provision of car park and its inherent facilities in major activity centers of the urban environment. Data were obtained from 167 private car users in major activity centers of the study area through purposive sampling technique. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Relative Willingness Index (RWI) in the study area showed that the car users were most willing to pay for ‘surface car park’ and ‘shared car park’ with indices of 4.47 and 3.39 respectively. The basic car park attributes preferred were: car washing service, toilet facilities, security service and surveillance cameras among others. It was also established that the willingness to pay (WTP) for parking space varied directly with the education (primary RWI= 2.97; secondary RWI= 3.44; tertiary RWI= 4.15) and income statuses (low RWI= 2.72, middle RWI= 3.61; high RWI= 3.94) of the users. The minimum, maximum and average amount of money that the users could afford and willing to pay after using parking space and inherent facilities were respectively N50, N250 and N175 (US$1 = N365). The study concluded that the information obtained on the car owners’ WTP for parking space and associated facilities could be effective device in the hands of policy makers and private investors at ensuring that the problems of the unavailability of car parks in the urban environment are curbed.

Assessing Spatial Accessibility to Hierarchical Urban Parks by Multi-Types of Travel Distance in Shenzhen, China.

Urban green spaces play a critical role in public health and human wellbeing for urban residents. Due to the uneven spatial distribution of urban green spaces in most of cities, the issue of the disparity between supply and demand has aroused public concern. In a case of Shenzhen, a modified Gaussian-based two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is adopted to evaluate the disparity between park provision and the demanders in terms of accessibility at hierarchical levels under four types of distance (e.g., Euclidean distance, walking distance, bicycling distance, and driving distance), which is well aligned with hierarchical systems in urban green spaces in urban planning practice. By contrast and correlation analysis, among the four types of distance, the statistical correlations are relatively high between Euclidean distance and the other three. Nonetheless, the pattern of spatial accessibility under different type of travel distance is apparently variant. Accessibility calculated by Euclidean distance is overestimated relative to that of the other three, while the pattern of walking distance and bicycling distance is similar to each other. The choice of type of distance is worthy of caution when evaluating spatial accessibility by 2SFCA method. Results show that the accessibility to parks at all hierarchical levels is high particularly, particularly at the natural level. However, the disparity between the supply and demand is significant. The percentage of communities that have high population density but low park accessibility is over 40% (equivalent to approximately 55% of the population). The finding may provide implications on access to urban greens paces for urban planners and authorities to develop effective planning strategies.