Parking Supply Research Articles

Inequities in the quality of urban park systems: An environmental justice investigation of cities in the United States

A growing body of research shows affluent White neighborhoods have more acres of parks and more park facilities than low-income ethnic minority communities in many Global North cities. Most of these investigations focused on neighborhood-level differences and did not analyze broader inequities across cities. This is a particularly significant limitation in the U.S., where changes in the political economy of parks due to a reduced local tax base have led cities to compete against each other to secure park funding from national nonprofits and public agencies. To address this gap, we examined whether the quality of urban park systems – measured through The Trust for Public Land’s ParkScore – varies depending on a city’s median income and ethnic composition. Based on multivariate regressions in which we control for features of the urban fabric, we found U.S. cities with higher median incomes and lower percentages of Latino and Non-Hispanic Black residents have higher ParkScores than other cities. Some inequities also emerged for park coverage, park spending per person, and park facilities, with majority-Latino cities being particularly disadvantaged. These findings echo the results of neighborhood-level studies in Global North contexts, suggesting neighborhood-level inequities in park provision might scale up to inequities across cities. This study contributes to environmental justice theory and advocacy by demonstrating the importance of scaling up analyses of park provision to cross-city comparisons. Implications for landscape planning, public policy, and grant-making are discussed.

Parking Pricing and Design in the Morning Commute Problem with Regular and Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicles can profoundly change parking behavior in the future. Instead of searching for parking, autonomous vehicle owners get dropped off at their final destination and send their occupant-free cars to a parking spot. In this paper, we study the impact of parking in a bi-class morning commute problem with autonomous and regular vehicles. We consider a spatial distribution of parking spaces, which allows us to capture the parking location of travelers. In the equilibrium condition, autonomous vehicles leave home later (than regular vehicles), and park farther away from their destination. The regular vehicle travelers, however, leave home sooner to park closer to the destination with a smaller walking distance. The reverse occurs if regular travelers abdicate walking and take a faster mode from their parking space to the city center. To optimize the system, we develop temporal and spatial parking pricing strategies and a new parking supply design scheme, as practical alternatives for the conventional dynamic congestion pricing. The proposed parking pricing strategies incentivize commuters to adjust their travel schedules by charging a parking price that increases with distance from the city center. Hence, those who park closer to their destination have to pay less. This is a counter-intuitive finding at first which arises from a trade-off with the earliness penalty of users who park close to the destination. We show that system optimality is also reached by redistributing the parking supply. Our numerical experiments capture the impact the autonomous vehicle penetration rate on the performance of the system and the proposed parking pricing and design strategies.

Market Segmentation Analysis of Commuter Parking Relative to Shared Private Residential Parking Spots

Using shared private residential spots for commuter parking is a relatively new parking method in China. It promotes the utilization of residential parking resources, while reducing parking supply pressure during the day. This study adopted the market segmentation approach for analyzing this new method, based on surveying parkers’ socioeconomic and attitudinal factors. The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed to identify various influential factors. The results reveal that attitudes and socioeconomic heterogeneity influence parkers’ willingness and attitudes, which play a more significant role in this process. Moreover, the K-means was used to segment the market. Finally, six segments with distinct characteristics were identified, based on a willingness to utilize private residential spots for commuter parking, sensitivity to parking search time, walking distances, the economy, environmental awareness and parking payment method. Suggestions for marketing promotion for parkers of each segment are also discussed. The findings in this paper will help clarify the mechanism behind commuter-parking location choices and benefit third parties by enabling them to establish precise marketing strategies.

An equilibrium analysis of commuter parking in the era of autonomous vehicles

This study is the first in the literature to model the joint equilibrium of departure time and parking location choices when commuters travel with autonomous vehicles (AVs). With AVs, walking from parking spaces to the work location is not needed. Instead, AVs will drop off the commuters at the workplace and then drive themselves to the parking spaces. In this context, the equilibrium departure/arrival profile is different from the literature with non-autonomous vehicles (non-AVs). Besides modeling the commuting equilibrium, this study further develops the first-best time-dependent congestion tolling scheme to achieve the system optimum. Also, a location-dependent parking pricing scheme is developed to replace the tolling scheme. Furthermore, this study discusses the optimal parking supply to minimize the total system cost (including both the travel cost and the social cost of parking supply) under either user equilibrium or system optimum traffic flow pattern. It is found that the optimal planning of parking can be different from the non-AV situation, since the vehicles can drive themselves to parking spaces that are further away from the city center and walking of commuters is avoided. This paper sheds light on future parking supply planning and traffic management.

Spatial analysis related to the location characteristics of park supply. Case study: Music Park and Pendawa Park, Bandung City, Indonesia

Public space plays a role in defining the character of a city and is a valuable asset for a city and one of the indicators in assessing whether a city is considered successful or not. In the context of urban sociology, high-quality public spaces with well-maintained environments can improve the quality of the heterogeneous life of urban social communities by creating economic, social, or environmental value-added. Urban societies tend to be heterogeneous, individualistic, and characterized by high competition that often causes conflicts. Another reason for conflicts is the relatively high social differentiation because of the level of religious differences, customs, languages, and sociocultural aspects brought by immigrants from various regions. In the context of space, the city is a system that does not stand alone because internally the city is a unified system of functional activities in it. Meanwhile, externally, the city is influenced by its surrounding environment. As part of the public space, park has an important role in the environmental, aesthetic, recreational, psychological, social, educational, and economic aspects of the city. Public space can be understood as open spaces in urban areas, where everyone regardless their interests and backgrounds can be intersectional and have social contact and serve as an “urban regenerator” including educational functions through innovation and technological intervention. Moreover, park can also absorb carbon dioxide emissions, produce oxygen, improve air and water quality, regulate the microclimate, reduce noise, protect soil and water, and maintain biodiversity. However, many things cause the function of parks to decrease. One reason relates to the distribution of parks related to the characteristics of their location. Research has not seen many studies on the characteristics of locations in the planning of public space. The provision of public space should consider these location characteristics. This study will use a descriptive methodology, by first explaining the policy of public space provision, the existence of the reality of public space, its function and role, the park as public space, the time of visiting the park by the community, and the various problems that occur in it. This research will look at the characteristics of neighborhood parks based on the aspect of the location of park supply and the spatial policies of Bandung City. The analysis comprised ArcGIS (Geographic Information System) and direct observations to evaluate the locational characteristics of the area around the park by using the case study of Music Park and Pendawa Park.

Cruising and on-street parking pricing: A difference-in-difference analysis of measured parking search time and distance in San Francisco

When on-street parking is scarce, the cost of parking includes the extra time and fuel spent searching for a parking space (or cruising). Cruising also unnecessarily contributes to local congestion, vehicle emissions, air pollution, and climate change. The theoretical literature shows that these social costs can be reduced, or even eliminated, if high-quality information on the demand for and supply of parking is used to set parking prices at optimal levels. Not surprisingly, cities plagued by parking shortages, congested streets, and limited financial resources are interested in parking policies that reduce cruising and improve the efficient use of their existing parking and roadway infrastructure. The current study sheds light on the effect of the San Francisco parking pricing program (known as SFpark) on curbside parking search time and distance in urban neighborhoods on non-commuter parking. The study differs from previous empirical evaluations of similar parking pricing programs in its use of direct field measurements of parking search time and distance, rather than simulated data or proxy variables, such as parking availability. We use generalized mixed effect difference-in-difference models with data collected before and after the implementation of SFpark in both treatment and control areas to estimates effects of the San Francisco smart parking project, most importantly the demand responsive parking pricing scheme. The models control for time effects by using data from a separate control area, as opposed to using variables such as block face parking price and employment. The results suggest a significant reduction in average parking search time and distance due to SFpark. Average parking search time and distance declines by approximately 15% and 12%, respectively, from the control to the treatment areas.

Accounting for attitudes on parking choice: An integrated choice and latent variable approach

The well-differentiated impact that parking supply options produce on congestion, pollution and land consumption arouses the interest of policy makers for a better understanding of car user’s behavior when choosing a parking option. Despite the evidence on the advantages of hybrid discrete choice models, most literature on parking choice only involves observable factors while leaving aside issues related to the latent variables. The behavioral hypothesis is that parking choice process depends not only on a set of observable factors but also has to do with individual-specific latent attributes. A hybrid discrete choice model with interactions among attitudes and observable factors, as well as among socioeconomic characteristics and observable factors, was estimated in order to consider individual heterogeneity. The results showed that, in addition to parking fee, search time and access time, a Risk-averse attitude and a Positive car care (maintenance) attitude are determinants for parking choice. The inclusion of these latent attributes and their interactions also resulted in a large improvement in the goodness-of-fit of the model and affected the time valuations.

Low-carbon futures for Shenzhen’s urban passenger transport: A human-based approach

Shenzhen, one of China’s leading cities, has the potential to be a model for achieving China’s ambitious CO2 emission reduction targets. Using data from a travel diary survey in Shenzhen in 2014, we develop a human-based agent model to conduct a scenario study of future urban passenger transport energy consumption and CO2 emissions from 2014 to 2050. Responses to different policy interventions at the individual level are taken into account. We find that with current policies, the carbon emissions of the urban passenger transport sector in Shenzhen will continuously increase without a peak before 2050. Strengthening 21 transport policies will help Shenzhen to peak the carbon emissions by 2030 for passenger transport. Among these policies, the car quota policy and the fuel economy standard are essential for achieving a carbon peak by 2030. In addition, a package of seven policies, including fewer car quotas, a stricter fuel economy standard, raising parking fees, limiting parking supply, increasing EV charging facilities and subway lines, and improving public transport services, is sufficient to peak carbon emissions by 2030, although at an emissions level higher than for the 21 policies.

Liberty and the City

The city is the locus of our every-day lives. It is where we are free to live, socialize, shop, and labour. However, with this freedom also comes unfreedom. Policies and systemic structures are capable of denying freedom as much as supporting it. With the freedom of the automobile came the erosion of sidewalks, with the increased provision of common parks (like those in gated communities) came the elimination of genuine public space, and with the construction of subsidized housing projects came the destruction of many dynamic neighbourhoods and socio-economic segregation. Debates over the content of “freedom” have long been a tradition within political theory. This thesis transplants those debates to the urban realm of the “every-day.” Guided by the works of both urban theorists (including David Harvey and Jane Jacobs) and theorists of liberty (Rawls, Nozick, and G.A. Cohen, among others), the completed project will synthesize the two and demonstrate how features of urban environments affect the realization of human freedom.

Existing Situation of on Street Parking and Impacts on Effective Carriageway Width and V/C Ratio: A Case Study of Rajshahi City Corporation Area

Rajshahi is an important and divisional city of Bangladesh. Rajshahi city has well organized internal communication as well as connection to other parts of the country. But, the growth of slow moving vehicles such as easy bike and auto rickshaws in Rajshahi has created many problems. One of the worst issues is, being parked these vehicles at the major intersection points. It is becoming a crucial issue in managing the transportation system since it affects the overall accessibility of a city. On street parking is now creating severe transportation problems in major roads of Rajshahi city. Moreover, on street parking is one of the main reasons of road congestion in Rajshahi city. This paper aims to explicate the parking scenario of the major intersection of Rajshahi city of slow moving vehicle traffic through analyzing the parking location, modal share of parking and parking supply analysis such as accumulation rate, volume, load, duration, occupancy, turn over etc. Required data has been collected from four major intersections named as Talaimari, Laxmipur, Monichottor and Railgate in Rajshahi city corporation area from 8.30AM to 12.00AM by using parking space inventory method and parking usage survey by petrol. Traffic volume count survey is also conducted to know the effects on V/C ratio with and without parking. The study found that the Monichottor intersection has the worst condition, even the level of service of the road is fallen because of the illegal on street parking. It also provides the comparisons between designated parking bay and non-designated place of parking. This study can help to explore the possibilities of moderating the present parking problems of Rajshahi. As the traffic on the existing road system increases, congestion becomes serious problems. Thus there could be medium and long term solution measures.

Capacity Impacts and Optimal Geometry of Automated Cars’ Surface Parking Facilities

The impact of Automated Vehicles (AVs) on urban geography has been widely speculated, though there is little quantitative evidence in the literature to establish the magnitude of such effects. To quantify the impact of the greater precision of automated driving on the spatial efficiency of off-street parking facilities, we develop a mixed integer nonlinear model (solved via a branch-and-cut approach) and present comparisons against industry-standard requirements for human-driving operation. We demonstrate that gains on the order of 40–50% in spatial efficiency (parking spaces per unit area) are in principle achievable while ensuring that each parked vehicle is independently accessible. We further show that the large majority of these efficiency gains can be obtained under current automotive engineering practice in which only the front two wheels pivot. There is a need for standardized methods that take the parking supply of a city as an input and calculate both the aggregate (citywide) efficiency impacts of automated driving and the spatial distribution of the effects. This study is intended as an initial step towards this objective.

IMPLIKASI PERILAKU PERJALANAN PELAJAR PENGGUNA SEPEDA MOTOR TERHADAP KESELAMATAN BERLALU LINTAS (Studi Kasus: Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Atas di Pusat Kota Semarang)

Movement in Semarang City has dependence on motorcycle, evidenced by the domination of motorcycle that reach 79%. It causes the highest percentage of accident rates by motorcycle users, reaching 66% of 5,378 incidents and 18.4% of them are high school students. Based on that problem, conducted research that aims to understand travel behavior of high school students motorcycle users in Semarang Central City and understand how dependence on motorcycles and safety riding awareness on the student. This research is use mix approach research to combine quantitative and qualitative method. The method of data analysis used in this study are descriptive statistics, network analysis and phenomenology analysis. The results show that social demographic aspects as measured by student participation in additional activities after school affect the student's travel behavior. Schedule and location of activities after school will form student travel pattern and then shaping the student travel behavior. It causes the motorcycle become the main mode of student travel. Besides travel behaviour, motorcycle dependence is caused by accumulation negligence by various parties. Such negligence is the provision of school parking following the demand growth, lack of integration of public transportation modes, and the permission of students to use motorcycles without driver license. Unfortunately, motorcycle dependence has not been accompanied by safety riding, it is evidenced by the percentage of causes of the highest accidents caused by driver factor, which reached 96%. 98% of students had committed traffic violations and 96% of them were deliberate. This is happened because students feel tired due to increased hours of activity from full day school system and additional activities after school so that students become unaware and not obey. These problems cause both well-informed and uninformed students ignore smart riding method.

Building-Based Analysis of the Spatial Provision of Urban Parks in Shenzhen, China.

Urban parks provide important environmental, social, and economic benefits to people and urban areas. The literature demonstrates that proximity to urban parks is one of the key factors influencing people’s willingness to use them. Therefore, the provision of urban parks near residential areas and workplaces is one of the key factors influencing quality of life. This study designed a solution based on the spatial association between urban parks and buildings where people live or work to identify whether people in different buildings have nearby urban parks available for their daily lives. A building density map based on building floor area (BFA) was used to illustrate the spatial distribution of urban parks and five indices were designed to measure the scales, service coverage and potential service loads of urban parks and reveal areas lacking urban park services in an acceptable walking distance. With such solution, we investigated the provision of urban parks in ten districts of Shenzhen in China, which has grown from several small villages to a megacity in only 30 years. The results indicate that the spatial provision of urban parks in Shenzhen is not sufficient since people in about 65% of the buildings cannot access urban parks by walking 10-min. The distribution and service coverage of the existing urban parks is not balanced at the district level. In some districts, the existing urban parks have good numbers of potential users and even have large service loads, while in some districts, the building densities surrounding the existing parks are quite low and at the same time there is no urban parks nearby some high-density areas.

Autonomous Campus Mobility Services Using Driverless Taxi

In this paper, we present a driverless taxi system for autonomous campus mobility services. College campuses have unique mobility requirements in terms of layout, population, and demand and patterns. It is typically recommended to minimize the presence of private automobiles on campuses due to teaching and research disturbances, visual degradation from parking provision, environmental pollution, and negative health effects. As an alternative to private automobiles, shared mobility systems have been considered for both campus and urban transportation. Conventional shuttle systems suffer from the first and last mile problem. A bicycle and pedestrian friendly policy is not a generalizable solution for all geographic locations and campus layouts. We suggest a driverless taxi service as an alternative point-to-point shared mobility system for campuses. We have demonstrated the feasibility of this service on a 4.5-km campus road at Seoul National University. The service has covered over 10 000 km autonomously since the first public demonstration was made in November 2015.

Impacts of the urban parking system on cruising traffic and policy development: the case of Zurich downtown area, Switzerland

Cruising-for-parking is a common phenomenon in many urban areas worldwide. Properly understanding and mitigating cruising can reduce travel times, alleviate traffic congestion, and improve the local environment. Most of the existing studies estimating cruising traffic are based on empirical data and/or detailed simulation models. Both approaches have large data requirements, and the detailed simulation models tend to have high computational costs. In this paper, we present a case study of an area within the city of Zurich, Switzerland, using a recently proposed macroscopic model to analyze the current conditions of cruising-for-parking. The results are validated with empirical data. The macroscopic model, inspired by a bottleneck model, reproduces the dynamics of both, the parking and the traffic system, as well as their interactions. As such, it calculates the delays encountered by drivers while waiting for parking, and the impact of such delays on the overall traffic stream, which involves not only the searching traffic but also the through traffic. It is shown that the macroscopic parking model could, additionally, incorporate the data generated by agent-based models, cooperatively producing valid and trustworthy results of cruising estimations, while requiring comparatively few data inputs and relatively low computational costs. The study shows that in a small area of Zurich (0.28 km2) with a demand of 2687 trips in a typical working day, cruising-for-parking generates 83 h of additional travel time and 1038 km of additional travel distance. Surprisingly, the worst conditions are observed at noon, corresponding to a maximum number of 30 searchers with an average search time of 13 min. Additionally, four types of parking policies are discussed, and their potential impacts on traffic performance are either quantitatively or qualitatively illustrated. The four policies include: the adjustment of the parking supply, the adjustment of parking time controls, the adoption of dynamic parking charges, and the provision of parking forecasts.

Green space and cognitive ageing: A retrospective life course analysis in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936

International evidence suggests that green space has beneficial effects on general and mental health but little is known about how lifetime exposure to green space influences cognitive ageing. Employing a novel longitudinal life course approach, we examined the association between lifetime availability of public parks and cognitive ageing. Lifetime residential information was gathered from the participants of the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 using a “life-grid” questionnaire at age 78 years. Parks information from 1949, 1969 and 2009 was used to determine a percentage of parks within a 1500 m buffer zone surrounding residence for childhood, adulthood, and later adulthood periods. Linear regressions were undertaken to test for association with age-standardised, residualised change in cognitive function (Moray House Test score) from age 11 to 70 years, and from age 70 to 76 (n = 281). The most appropriate model was selected using the results of a partial F-test, and then stratified by demographic, genetic and socioeconomic factors. The local provision of park space in childhood and adulthood were both important in explaining the change in cognitive function in later life. The association between childhood and adulthood park availability and change in the Moray House Test Score from age 70 to 76 was strongest for women, those without an APOE e4 allele (a genetic risk factor), and those in the lowest socioeconomic groups.Greater neighbourhood provision of public parks from childhood through to adulthood may help to slow down the rate of cognitive decline in later life, recognising that such environmental associations are always sensitive to individual characteristics.

Optimal parking provision for ride-sourcing services

Ride-sourcing services have become increasingly important in meeting travel needs in metropolitan areas. However, the cruising of vacant ride-sourcing vehicles generates additional traffic demand that may worsen traffic conditions. This paper investigates the allocation of a certain portion of road space to on-street parking for vacant ride-sourcing vehicles. A macroscopic conceptual framework is developed to capture the trade-off between capacity loss and the reduction of cruising. Considering a hypothetical matching mechanism adopted by the platform, we further materialize the framework and then apply it to study the interactions between the ride-sourcing system and parking provision under various market structures.

Data stories from urban loading bays

PurposeFreight vehicle parking facilities at large urban freight traffic generators, such as urban retail malls, are often characterized by a high volume of vehicle arrivals and a poor parking supply infrastructure. Recurrent congestion of freight parking facilities generates environmental (e.g. pollution), economic (e.g. delays in deliveries) and social (e.g. traffic) negative externalities. Solutions aimed at either improving or better managing the existing parking infrastructure rely heavily on data and data-driven models to predict their impact and guide their implementation. In the current work, we provide a quantitative study of the parking supply and freight vehicle drivers’ parking behaviour at urban retail malls.MethodsWe use as case studies two typical urban retail malls located in Singapore, and collect detailed data on freight vehicles delivering or picking up goods at these malls. Insights from this data collection effort are relayed as data stories. We first describe the parking facility at a mall as a queueing system, where freight vehicles are the agents and their decisions are the parking location choice and the parking duration.ResultsUsing the data collected, we analyse (i) the arrival rates of vehicles at the observed malls, (ii) the empirical distribution of parking durations at the loading bays, (iii) the factors that influence the parking duration, (iv) the empirical distribution of waiting times spent by freight vehicle queueing to access the loading bay, and (v) the driver parking location choices and how this choice is influenced by system congestion.ConclusionsThis characterisation of freight driver behaviour and parking facility system performance enables one to understand current challenges, and begin to explore the feasibility of freight parking and loading bay management solutions.

Parking Provision for CBD Area of Pabna Town in Bangladesh

Pabna is the most ancient city of Bangladesh having a parking problem in CBD area. This study is mainly focused on the demand and supply of parking system in CBD area. The deficiency of parking supply and illegal occupancy of the traffic lane with parking has become a common practice. An existing parking accommodation, parking demand, parking turnover, average parking duration, parking types and parking index are analyzed on the base of modified patrol survey. The parking space inventory survey helps to identify the present parking spaces, number of parking bays, vacant land for the multistoried parking facility. Both on-street and off-street parking have surveyed to find out the actual measurement of the demand and supply of parking. It should be mentioned that the feasibility of a multistoried parking facility is also proposed to shift the existing on-street parking of CBD.

Parking Provision for CBD Area of Pabna Town in Bangladesh

Pabna is the most ancient city of Bangladesh having a parking problem in CBD area. This study is mainly focused on the demand and supply of parking system in CBD area. The deficiency of parking supply and illegal occupancy of the traffic lane with parking has become a common practice. An existing parking accommodation, parking demand, parking turnover, average parking duration, parking types and parking index are analyzed on the base of modified patrol survey. The parking space inventory survey helps to identify the present parking spaces, number of parking bays, vacant land for the multistoried parking facility. Both on-street and off-street parking have surveyed to find out the actual measurement of the demand and supply of parking. It should be mentioned that the feasibility of a multistoried parking facility is also proposed to shift the existing on-street parking of CBD.