Parent Plants Research Articles

Bromus tectorum responses to intergenerational drought: Implications for evolvability and selection under climate warming

AbstractBromus tectorum poses a substantial threat to sagebrush steppe in the North American intermountain west. Responses of B. tectorum to increasing aridity across the western USA may influence the species’ ability to invade new habitats and further dominate colonised regions. We investigated the phenotypic plasticity of stomatal density, root and shoot length, and root:shoot length ratio across replicates of 23 genotypes subjected to two generations of high and low watering regimes. Shoot lengths greatly increased, root lengths increased and root:shoot ratios decreased with higher levels of progeny (F1) watering. We did not detect explicit transgenerational parental (P) effects on the reaction norms of any trait. Stomatal density did not vary consistently with F1 watering, suggesting a diversified bet‐hedging strategy. As a consequence, heritability for stomatal density did not differ significantly from zero, indicating that evolvability was extremely low. Highest overall potentials for phenotypic selection (the ratio of among‐to‐within genotype trait variances) occurred for shoot length, followed by root length, stomatal density and root:shoot length ratio. Potentials for phenotypic selection were variable among traits and watering treatments. Highest potentials for stomatal density occurred in well‐watered progeny of water‐starved parent plants (i.e. plants from the combined low P H2O, high F1 H2O regime), whereas the highest potentials for phenotypic selection for shoot length occurred for the combined high P H2O, high F1 H2O treatment. We conclude that B. tectorum expresses complex phenotypic trade‐offs with successive exposure to drought, and that phenotypic responses for some traits may allow the species to expand its fundamental niche in response to climate change.

Reconstructing the Lower Devonian (Lochkovian) vegetation from the Anglo-Welsh Basin: Two spore masses containing Emphanisporites McGregor spores

In situ spores have gone some way towards harmonising the prominent disparity between the Early Devonian dispersed spore and megafossil records, greatly advancing but often challenging our understanding of early vegetation. Here, we investigate an elongate and a discoidal spore mass, yielding Emphanisporites epicautus Richardson and Lister and Emphanisporites sp. respectively from the early (not earliest) Lochkovian (Lower micrornatus-newportensis spore assemblage biozone) of the Ross-Tewkesbury Spur (M50) motorway section in the Anglo-Welsh Basin, UK. We explore their morphology and spore wall ultrastructure using SEM and TEM. A paucity of useful phylogenetic characters precludes formal identification or description of the parent plants but a relationship to the rhyniophytes is hypothesised. A dearth of vascular tissues, however, necessitates their placement amongst the rhyniophytoids. Both the sporangial morphology and spore wall ultrastructure differs between the specimens, distancing them from each other and from other Emphanisporites species. While similarities exist, no unequivocal relationships with contemporaneous or extant taxa, or indeed lineages, can be made using sporangial morphology or spore wall architecture. These differences lend further support to deliberations that the ‘emphanoid’ condition was a consequence of convergent evolution. Using the dispersed spore record we explore the paleoecology of the plants, which points towards them being minor components of the vegetation, restricted to areas away from river catchment. This interpretation is redolent of the middle Lochkovian cf. Horneophyton sp. (E. cf. micrornatus parent plant) from North Brown Clee Hill, but that plant may have been restricted to a more specialised niche. What characterised the niches of these plants is uncertain, but they may have been ephemerally water stressed, perhaps hinting at a moisture sensing function for the ‘emphanoid’ spore structure.

Sublethal effects of metal toxicity and the measure of plant fitness in ecotoxicological experiments

Anthropogenic pollution is a major driver of global environmental change. To be properly addressed, the study of the impact of pollutants must consider both lethal effects and sublethal effects on individual fitness. However, measuring fitness remains challenging. In plants, the total number of seeds produced, i.e. the seed set, is traditionally considered, but is not readily accessible. Instead, performance traits related to survival, e.g., vegetative biomass and reproductive success, can be measured, but their correlation with seed set has rarely been investigated.To develop accurate estimates of seed set, relationships among 15 vegetative and reproductive traits were analyzed. For this purpose, Noccaea caerulescens (Brassicaceae), a model plant to study local adaptation to metal-contaminated environments, was used. To investigate putative variation in trait relationships, sampling included several accessions cultivated in contrasting experimental conditions. To test their applicability, selected estimates were used in the first generation of a Laboratory Natural Selection (LNS) experiment exposing experimentally plants to zinc soil pollution.Principal component analyses revealed statistical independence between vegetative and reproductive traits. Traits showing the strongest positive correlation with seed set were the number of non-aborted silicles, and the product of this number and mean silicle length. They thus appeared the most appropriate to document sublethal or fitness effects of environmental contaminants in plant ecotoxicological studies. The relevance of both estimates was confirmed by using them to assess the fitness of parental plants of the first generation of an LNS experiment: the same families consistently displayed the highest or the lowest performance values in two independent experimental metal-exposed populations. Thus, both these fitness estimates could be used to determine the expected number of offspring and the composition of successive generations in further LNS experiments investigating the impact of multi-generational exposure of a plant species to environmental pollution.

Microspores of the Middle Triassic lycopsid Lepacyclotes (syn. Annalepis) zeilleri: Morphology, ultrastructure, laminated zones and comments about the lycopsid evolution

Microspores extracted from isolated sporophylls assigned to Lepacyclotes (syn. Annalepis) zeilleri from the Ladinian (Middle Triassic) of northeastern France are described and studied in transmitted light as well as with help of scanning and transmission electron microscopes. These spores, which are monolete and cavate, correspond to Aratrisporites saturni if found as sporae dispersae. Their ultrastructure is quite comparable with that of microspores of other Triassic lycopsids as well as modern Isoetes testifying to a close relationship between the parent plants. Indeed, their exospores possess laminated zones (LZ) in the apertural area. A review of the lycopsids indicates that the laminated zones existed as early as in the Devonian and that they remained unchanged since then. Thus, this feature is considered a fundamental evolutionary character of the lycopsids. However, our analysis of the laminated zones also suggests that they were devices involved in the aperture functioning among which the control of hydration and dehydration mechanisms.

Terrestrial records of Early Cretaceous paleoclimate fluctuations in the Yin'e Basin, northern China: Evidence from sedimentology and palynomorphs in lacustrine sediments

Rapid changes in paleoclimate in the Early Cretaceous had profound impacts on the global ecosystem, which is recorded not only in marine sediments but also in coeval sediments deposited in continental lake systems. This study performed the lake sedimentary characteristics and paleontological data of the upper member of Bayingebi Formation (K1b2) of Lower Cretaceous in the Yin'e Basin (North China) and revealed the paleoclimate disturbances and the evolution of paleovegetation and paleoenvironment recorded in the continental lake. The sediments of K1b2 can be divided into 10 kinds of lithofacies according to grain size, sedimentary structure and overall lithofacies. The three lithofacies associations are nearshore subaqueous fan, semi-deep lake/deep lake and shallow lake respectively. Seventy-eight palynomorph genera and two hundred and thirty-one palynomorph species were identified in the K1b2 samples, which allowed distinguishing 3 palynozones. The sporopollen spectrum and the ecological characteristics of sporopollen parent plants indicate that there was abundant temperate coniferous forest vegetation during the deposition of Bayingebi Formation. The mixed phenomenon of a few cold-loving molecular spores and pollen such as spruce, cedar and fir with tropical and subtropical spores and pollen suggest vertical zoning of plants. It is inferred that the ground shape and height difference around Yin'e Basin in Early Cretaceous is large, and there may be paleogeomorphic features of high mountains, and the paleoclimate has vertical zoning. The K1b2 depositional period was mainly in the warm temperate-temperate paleoclimate background, and oil shale was mainly developed in the semi-humid warm temperate climate. The suitable paleotemperature and the sedimentary environment of semi-deep lake/deep lake provide rich organic matter sources and good preservation conditions for the formation of oil shale. The dropstone structures commonly found in the lower strata of the oil shale member of the Bayingebi Formation in the study area were deposited in a semi-humid temperate climate and were inferred to be ice-rafting deposits, which may be related to a brief climatic cooling event or seasonal freezing during the Early Cretaceous in northern China. The typical East Asian paleontological fossils (Jehol Biota) and lacustrine hydrocarbon source rocks developed in the Early Cretaceous in the study area were affected by the paleoclimate warming in the early Aptian, which was closely related to the increase of global CO2 concentration in this period.

Wind dispersal of seeds of Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae) contributes to its steady invasion and spread

AbstractWind dispersal is considered to be a potentially important mode of spread for parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.), an invasive Asteraceae herb of worldwide significance. However, empirical evidence of the role of wind dispersal on the seeds (achenes) of parthenium weed in natural landscapes is lacking. The results of a simulation study undertaken at a wind tunnel facility, Australia, indicated that the dispersal distance of parthenium weed achenes is largely determined by wind velocity (109–131% increase in distance where wind velocity is doubled) and plant release height (75–80% increase when release height is doubled). Glasshouse harvested achenes released from 1 m in height could travel up to 2 m under a 2 m s−1 wind velocity, with the majority of achenes reaching more than 1 m. Smaller‐sized achenes travelled 5% further than larger‐sized achenes. The terminal velocity was calculated to be 1.256 ± 0.006 m s−1, indicating a moderate wind dispersal ability for the weed. A complementary field study in Southeast Queensland, Australia, indicated that the cumulative wind velocity and wind direction, instead of the mean wind velocity, determined the direction of dispersal of the achenes. Further post‐dispersal surveys suggested the number of achenes outside of a standing population declined rapidly as distance from the population increased. Most achenes were dispersed less than 2 m from their parent plant, while the maximum distance achieved was less than 5 m under natural conditions in North Queensland. In conclusion, the natural wind dispersal of parthenium weed consists of small, but measurable increments each year, thus contributing to the weed proliferation and spread at the landscape scale level.

Editorial and News

Editorial and News

INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOSITAE – 3

INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOSITAE – 3

Cinnamic Acid in Frankincense Sap as a Criterion for Determining the Best Mother Plant for Vegetative Propagation of Styrax benzoin (Sumatra Benzoin) in Sumatra, Indonesia

Cinnamic acid, contained in frankincense sap produced by Styrax benzoin (Sumatra benzoin tree), is an important compound that is used for various purposes, such as preservatives, fragrances, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. The production of frankincense sap as a forest product can be increased through the inclusion of S. benzoin seeds, which are propagated from the best mother plants. This study aims to use the content of cinnamic acid contained in the sap of S. benzoin as a criterion for determining the best mother plant for propagation of seeds. The research was conducted using healthy plants, taking sap samples, identifying and confirmation of cinnamic acid levels, and determining the best mother tree based on the content of cinnamic acid. The results of this study have identified six individual S. benzoin trees of very good quality based on their phenotypic advantages and the quantity of sap production. Isolation and identification of cinnamic acid from frankincense samples showed that the composition of cinnamic acid was high (12 to 21%). Three good quality S. benzoin trees, with high cinnamic acid composition, were SBN-7 (21%), SBN-3 (18%), and SBN-10 (17%). The SBN-7 tree was then chosen as the best S. benzoin, producing 2.70 kg year−1 sap, containing cc. 21% cinnamic acid. A selected mother plant will be used as a source of plant material for vegetative propagation to produce good quality seeds similar to the properties of the parent plant forforest conservation and to increase the production of nontimber forest raw materials for medicine and other purposes. The finding of this study is the first to use the composition of cinnamic acid as a criterion for determining the best mother plant. The composition of cinnamic acid in the sap is an important parameter in determining the superiority of S. benzoin plants.

Miospores from the Upper Devonian and lowermost Carboniferous strata of the Khoshyeilagh area, northeastern Alborz, Iran

Diverse and well-preserved terrestrial palynomorphs occur in the Padeha, Khoshyeilagh, and Mobarak formations in the Khoshyeilagh area, northeastern Alborz, northern Iran. The spore assemblages consist of 36 species belonging to 24 genera. The vertical distribution of index spores allows the erection within these strata of five local biozones (BT, FF, LE, LN, and VI). The data show that assemblages recorded from the Khoshyeilagh section can be correlated with the VCo, LE, LN, and VI Miospore biozones of Europe, Canada, and USA. Many of the palynomorph species, such as Archaeoperisaccus ovalis, Ancyrospora ampulla, Diducites mucronatus, D. versabilis, Grandispora cornuta, G. echinata, Indotriradites explanatus, Retispora lepidophyta, Retusotriletes incohatus, R. phillipsii, Rugospora flexuosa, Teichertospora torquata, Tumulispora malevkensis, Vallatisporites pusillites, Verrucosisporites bulliferus, and Verrucosisporites nitidus, are closely comparable with coeval assemblages recorded from Belgium, Portugal, Canada, North Africa, South America, and North America. This indicates the close relationship of the Iranian Platform to other parts of the northern Gondwana and southern Laurentian domain during this time interval. Moreover, parent plants of the Late Devonian miospores in the Khoshyeilagh area generally belong to herbaceous Class Rhyniopsida (orders: Rhyniales, Trimerophytales), Zosterophyllopsida, and various classes such as, Lycopsida (herbaceous order: Isoetales, Selaginellales, Protolepidodendrales), Progymnospermopsida (Order Archaeopteridales and Aneuropthytales), and Filicopsida. The presence of marine shelly macrofauna (brachiopods and corals) suggest a nearshore depositional environment comprising rivers, fluvial deltas, tidal flats, and lagoons for the Upper Devonian and lowermost Carboniferous deposits studied herein.

Transcriptome shock in interspecific F1 allotriploid hybrids between Brassica species.

Interspecific hybridization drives the evolution of angiosperms and can be used to introduce novel alleles for important traits or to activate heterosis in crop breeding. Hybridization brings together gene expression networks from two different species, potentially causing global alterations of gene expression in the F1 plants which is called 'transcriptome shock'. Here, we explored such a transcriptome shock in allotriploid Brassica hybrids. We generated interspecific F1 allotriploid hybrids between the allotetraploid species Brassica napus and three accessions of the diploid species Brassica rapa. RNA-seq of the F1 hybrids and the parental plants revealed that 26.34-30.89% of genes were differentially expressed between the parents. We also analyzed expression level dominance and homoeolog expression bias between the parents and the F1 hybrids. The expression-level dominance biases of the Ar, An, and Cn subgenomes was genotype and stage dependent, whereas significant homoeolog expression bias was observed among three subgenomes from different parents. Furthermore, more genes were involved in trans regulation than in cis regulation in allotriploid F1 hybrids. Our findings provide new insights into the transcriptomic responses of cross-species hybrids and hybrids showing heterosis, as well as a new method for promoting the breeding of desirable traits in polyploid Brassica species.

Induction of Semi-Dwarf Trait to a Three Pistil Tall Mutant Through Breeding With Increased Grain Numbers in Wheat.

Multi-ovary wheat (three pistil) is a unique germplasm for the seed production of hybrid wheat. The purpose of the present study was to transfer the multi-ovary trait to semi-dwarf plants to increase the production of grains in wheat crops. Therefore, tall, semi-dwarf, and dwarf plants were crossed with plants with the three-pistil trait. A three-pistil tall plant was used as the female parent, while tall (Synthetic hexaploid), semi-dwarf, and dwarf plants were used as male parents. F1 and F2 progenies with parents were planted in 2015-16 using RCBD. The outcome of the crosses showed that multi-ovary tall plants gave significant difference for all five traits (days to maturity, plant height, number of seeds per spike, grain weight per spike, and grain yield per unit area) in both generations. The greatest number of grains per spike and grain yield per unit area were obtained from the cross of three-pistil tall and dwarf parent (P1/P6) in the F1 and F2 generations. The cross also resulted in a significant reduction in height (96 cm). Further heterosis studies conducted with crosses between three-pistil tall and dwarf parent (P1/P6) showed the greatest heterosis and heterobeltiosis for the number of grains per spike (60.0 and 26.19%, respectively) and grain yield per m2 (27.68 and 2.85%, respectively). In the case of grain weight per spike, the heterosis value was also positive and significant (17.7). Meanwhile, for other traits, their values were negative for heterosis and heterobeltiosis. High numbers of grains and grain weight were found to be associated with positive heterobeltiosis and in turn the grain yield per m2, but plant height and maturity had negative affirmation with heterobeltiosis. Heterosis studies also indicated the dominant gene action for the three-pistil trait. Thus, the study clearly signified that grain yield can be increased by using the multi-ovary genotype with the semi-dwarf height. This new germplasm will be helpful for breeders to increase the production of wheat crops in the southern climate of Pakistan.

Germplasm conservation of economically important medicinal plant Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. through encapsulation technique and maintenance under slow growth condition

An efficient encapsulation and slow growth conservation protocol was developed for Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. an antiviral medicinal plant of the family Oleaceae. A gel matrix with 3% sodium alginate and 100 mM calcium chloride (CaCl2⋅2H2O) was found best for the encapsulation of nodal segments. The viability and shoot development potential of encapsulated nodal segments was optimized. Encapsulated nodal segments stored at 4 °C and 24 °C remained viable for up to 90 days and showed shoot development potential 42.89 ± 6.04% and 33.53 ± 7.15% respectively. Nodal segments maintained under slow growth conditions up to 180 days on one-eighth strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0.5% sucrose was suitable for satisfactory viability (40.28 ± 2.04%), while further addition of 0.5 mg/l abscisic acid supported 40.36 ± 1.01% viability of the nodal segments. The best rooting response was achieved on half-strength MS medium supplemented with 4 mg/l indole-3-acetic acid. The field survival of rooted plants was 65%. The clonal fidelity of in-vitro derived plantlets was studied with start codon targeted primer profile, which showed the same banding mobility patterns as the source parent plant. The maximum banding profile was monomorphic and consistent, confirming the clonal stability of regenerated plants. The method developed will permit the in-vitro conservation of this species and facilitate an easy exchange of plant germplasm.

A field experiment characterizing variable detection rates during plant surveys.

Surveys aimed at finding threatened and invasive species can be challenging due to individual rarity and low and variable individual detection rates. Detection rate in plant surveys typically varies due to differences among observers, among the individual plants being surveyed (targets), and across background environments. Interactions among these 3 components may occur but are rarely estimated due to limited replication and control during data collection. We conducted an experiment to investigate sources of variation in detection of 2 Pilosella species that are invasive and sparsely distributed in the Alpine National Park, Australia. These species are superficially similar in appearance to other yellow‐flowered plants occurring in this landscape. We controlled the presence and color of flowers on target Pilosella plants and controlled their placement in plots, which were selected for their variation in cover of non‐target yellow flowers and dominant vegetation type. Observers mimicked Pilosella surveys in the plots and reported 1 categorical and 4 quantitative indicators of their survey experience level. We applied survival analysis to detection data to model the influence of both controlled and uncontrolled variables on detection rate. Orange‐ and yellow‐flowering Pilosella in grass‐ and heath‐dominated vegetation were detected at a higher rate than nonflowering Pilosella. However, this detection gain diminished as the cover of other co‐occurring yellow‐flowering species increased. Recent experience with Pilosella surveys improved detection rate. Detection experiments are a direct and accessible means of understanding detection processes and interpreting survey data for threatened and invasive species. Our detection findings have been used for survey planning and can inform progress toward eradication. Interaction of target and background characteristics determined detection rate, which enhanced predictions in the Pilosella eradication program and demonstrated the difficulty of transferring detection findings into untested environments.

KUALITAS TEGAKAN BENIH LOKAL DI HUTAN LINDUNG KAB. LUWU UTARA

Information regarding the potential and dominance of local plant species in the Sassa Village Protection Forest, North Luwu Regency is still limited. In fact, there are fewer and fewer local plant species that are used by the community, this is indicated by the difficulty of obtaining local plant seed sources. This difficulty is due to the lack of local parent plants in this area, for this reason it is necessary to study the potential of local plants and the selection of parent trees for local plant seed sources. The research method by collecting data was carried out using exploratory techniques with the transect method, then the parent tree that had been determined as a seed source stand that had met the criteria as a parent tree was given a coordinate point. Then the scoring was carried out on tree height (T), tree diameter (D), branch-free height (Tbc), trunk straightness (KB), trunk surface (PB) and tree health condition (KK). The results of this study obtained 16 types of plants with the highest T score of 20, 16 species of plants with the highest D score of 30, 33 species that had the highest Tbc score of 15, and 3 types of plants that had the highest KB+PB+KK score of 20. There were 18 species with a total score of >60 that met the highest criteria as well as from the various genotypic characteristics that had been observed.

Development and optimization of the method of clonal micropropagation of garden forms of hazelnuts (<i>Corylus sp.</i>)

Hazelnuts are an economically important nut crop in the world. Propagation of varietal hazelnut seedlings in the traditional way is expensive and time-consuming due to the need for huge areas for parent plants for cuttings and low level of rooting. The development and implementation of the technology of in vitro clonal micropropagation of hazelnuts is promising. The use of this method contributes to the mass production of homogeneous, infection-free planting material of hazelnuts for laying plantations of parent plants. In the course of our research, we optimized the protocol of clonal micropropagation of three cultivars of hazelnuts. It was found that for the cultivation of the studied cultivars, the most balanced in mineral composition is the DKW medium supplemented with 3.5 mg/l 6-BAP, 1.0 mg/l GA and 0.3 ml/l IAA; modification of the NRM medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/l GA + 1.0 mg/l NAA + 2.0 mg/l IBA effectively promotes rhizogenesis from explants; GA showed a synergistic effect together with NAA on the rooting of hazelnut microshoots, by the 4th week of cultivation, the number of shoots with roots reached 90-100%; in the conditions of a climate chamber using peat with sand substrate (50:50), the efficiency of adaptation to soil conditions was 92% for KAH-29 cultivar, 80% - for Zakataly cultivar, and 36% - for Khachmas cultivar.

1011. LAUNAEA CERVICORNIS: Compositae

SummaryLaunaea cervicornis (Boiss.) Font Quer & Rothm. (Compositae: Lactuceae: Hyoseridinae) is illustrated and described. The species is endemic to the Balearics, and is the dominant species in the limestone cliff‐top plant association Launaeion cervicornis (O. Bolòs & Vigo ex Y. Gil & Llorens) Rivas‐Martínez, Fernández‐González & Loidi) on the islands. Notes on cultivation, propagation, pests and diseases and availability are provided. The position of Launaea Cass. in the tribe Lactuceae (= Cichorieae) subtribe Hyoseridinae Less. is discussed, as is the position of the species within the genus, as the sole taxon in Launaea sect. Cervicornes N. Kilian. The reproductive biology of the species is discussed. The species exhibits a particularly short flowering time (per floret) and flowering period, maximizing on calm periods and an abundance of flower visitors/pollinators. The plant possesses three different dispersal mechanisms – anemochory (for solitary achenes), and atelechory and barochory for mature, unopened involucres. The former ensuring there is some movement away from the parent plant, and the latter two effectively ensuring that propagules are not instantly blown off the cliffs into the sea.

Progressive DNA demethylation in epigenetic hybrids between parental plants with and without methylation of the transgene promoter.

Crosses of parents that differ in their DNA methylation states leads to progressive demethylation in the F1 hybrids. In plant breeding research, hybrid vigor in F1 hybrids is known to be a very important phenomenon. Hybrid vigor, or heterosis, refers to the fact that F1 hybrids from crosses with a certain combination of parents have traits that are superior to those of the parents. In addition, DNA methylation is an important factor that affects gene expression in plant genomes and contributes to hybrid vigor. We introduced the 35S promoter sequence into the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)-based vector and inoculated the GFP-expressing transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana line 16c with the recombinant virus specifically to induce DNA methylation on the 35S promoter. For plants that had transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) of GFP established by methylation of the 35S promoter (35S-TGS), TGS was fully maintained in their later self-pollinated generations. When the 35S-TGS plants were crossed with 16c, which does not contain DNA methylation in the 35S promoter, the F1 hybrids unexpectedly became progressively DNA demethylated as the plants grew. We hypothesis that in F1 hybrids that are produced by a cross between parents with extremely different gene methylation states, the methylation state of the genes in question may shift more and more to hypomethylation as the plants grow. This progressive demethylation phenomenon observed in this study may be important in plant breeding to reactivate the genes which were silenced by DNA methylation.

Evaluating the Degradation of Natural Resources in the Mediterranean Environment Using the Water and Land Resources Degradation Index, the Case of Crete Island

Natural resources degradation poses multiple challenges particularly to environmental and economic processes. It is usually difficult to identify the degree of degradation and the critical vulnerability values in the affected systems. Thus, among other tools, indices (composite indicators) may also describe these complex systems or phenomena. In this approach, the Water and Land Resources Degradation Index was applied to the fifth largest Mediterranean island, Crete, for the 1999–2014 period. The Water and Land Resources Degradation Index uses 11 water and soil resources related indicators: Aridity Index, Water Demand, Drought Impacts, Drought Resistance Water Resources Infrastructure, Land Use Intensity, Soil Parent Material, Plant Cover, Rainfall, Slope, and Soil Texture. The aim is to identify the sensitive areas to degradation due to anthropogenic interventions and natural processes, as well as their vulnerability status. The results for Crete Island indicate that prolonged water resources shortages due to low average precipitation values or high water demand (especially in the agricultural sector), may significantly affect Water and Land degradation processes. Hence, Water and Land Resources Degradation Index could serve as an extra tool to assist policymakers to improve their decisions to combat Natural Resources degradation.

Comparative responses of glucosinolates in Baemoochae and its parent plants, radish and Chinese cabbage, during development

Baemoochae ‘BB1’ is considered a suitable plant for elucidating comparative levels of glucosinolate metabolomics because it is bred by the inter-generic hybridization of radish ‘Taebaek’ and Chinese cabbage ‘Bulam3’. This present study was conducted to determine the developmental diversity of glucosinolates in Baemoochae and its parent plants. In Baemoochae leaf and radish, the primary glucosinolate was glucoraphasatin, and its content in Baemoochae increased as it grew from 450.1 to 2325.1 µmol kg−1. In addition, the content of gluconapin, glucobrassicanapin, and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin also increased to 106.8, 50.4, and 3.4 times, respectively, during the development of Baemoochae, an effect which was also observed in Chinese cabbage. In mature Baemoochae, the levels of glucoraphanin, glucoalyssin, and gluconapoleiferin increased in the leaves, and those of glucoerucin and glucoraphanin increased in the roots, as compared to those in radish and Chinese cabbage. Therefore, glucosinolates composition in Baemoochae is similar to that in its parent plants; however, Baemoochae exhibited discrete patterns of glucosinolate distribution during developmental stages. Based on these results, the present study provides basic information of glucosinolates in Baemoochae, and will aid the understanding of changes in these metabolites during growth.