Pressure Drop Parameters Research Articles

Orthogonal experimental design and parameter optimization of an oil multi-gradient filtration device based on an applied electric field

Particulate pollutants in lubricating oils tend to increase the friction and wear of machine components, resulting in machine failure. This study proposes an oil multi-gradient filtration device employing an applied electric field for the effective removal of solid particles. Combined with the orthogonal test design, the effects of various control parameter combinations on the oil–solid separation were studied, aiming to achieve a lower pressure drop and higher filtration device efficiency. The degree of significance of the influence of each factor on the pressure drop of the filtration device and filtration efficiency was determined through a significance analysis. A regression model of the influence of the pressure drop and filtration efficiency under multi-factor conditions was established to define the relationship between the pressure drop, filtration efficiency, and control parameters. A dual-objective optimisation based on a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) was then performed. The optimum parameters for achieving a low-pressure-drop and high-efficiency filtration device were determined. The significance of the influence of the parameters on the pressure drop of the filter device followed the order: inlet flow rate > oil viscosity > electric field strength, indicating that the pressure drop was predominantly controlled by the inlet flow rate. The significance on the influence of the parameters on the filtration efficiency followed the order: electric field strength > oil viscosity > inlet flow rate, indicating that the filtration efficiency is primarily controlled by the electric field strength. Based on the NSGA-II, the optimal parameters are E = 2 kV/mm, flow rate = 0.2 m/s, and viscosity = 12 mPa·s. Using these optimal parameters, the pressure drop was minimized and did not exceed 48,325 Pa, and the filtration efficiency reached 99.96 %.

Transit Time Theory for a Droplet Passing through a Slit in Pressure-Driven Low Reynolds Number Flows.

Soft objects squeezing through small apertures are crucial for many in vivo and in vitro processes. Red blood cell transit time through splenic inter-endothelial slits (IESs) plays a crucial role in blood filtration and disease progression, while droplet velocity through constrictions in microfluidic devices is important for effective manipulation and separation processes. As these transit phenomena are not well understood, we sought to establish analytical and numerical solutions of viscous droplet transit through a rectangular slit. This study extends from our former theory of a circular pore because a rectangular slit is more realistic in many physiological and engineering applications. Here, we derived the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) of a droplet passing through a slit by combining planar Poiseuille flow, the Young-Laplace equations, and modifying them to consider the lubrication layer between the droplet and the slit wall. Compared to the pore case, we used the Roscoe solution instead of the Sampson one to account for the flow entering and exiting a rectangular slit. When the surface tension and lubrication layer were negligible, we derived the closed-form solutions of transit time. When the surface tension and lubrication layer were finite, the ODEs were solved numerically to study the impact of various parameters on the transit time. With our solutions, we identified the impact of prescribed pressure drop, slit dimensions, and droplet parameters such as surface tension, viscosity, and volume on transit time. In addition, we also considered the effect of pressure drop and surface tension near critical values. For this study, critical surface tension for a given pressure drop describes the threshold droplet surface tension that prevents transit, and critical pressure for a given surface tension describes the threshold pressure drop that prevents transit. Our solutions demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between pressure and the reciprocal of the transit time (referred to as inverse transit time), as well as a linear relationship between viscosity and transit time. Additionally, when the droplet size increases with respect to the slit dimensions, there is a corresponding increase in transit time. Most notably, we emphasize the initial antagonistic effect of surface tension which resists droplet passage but at the same time decreases the lubrication layer, thus facilitating passage. Our results provide quantitative calculations for understanding cells passing through slit-like constrictions and designing droplet microfluidic experiments.

Numerical simulation of thermal behavior of cerebral blood vessels using computational hemodynamic method

Nowadays, cardiovascular illnesses are among the leading causes of death in the world. Thus, many studies have been performed to diagnose and prevention of these diseases. Studies show that the computational hemodynamic method (CHD) is a very effective method to control and prevent the progression of this type of disease. In this computational paper, the impression of five non-Newtonian viscosity models (nNVMs) on cerebral blood vessels (CBV) is investigated by CHD. In this simulation, blood flow is supposed steady, laminar, incompressible, and non-Newtonian. The parameters of Nusselt number (Nu), dimensionless temperature (θ), pressure drop (Δp), and dimensionless average wall shear stress (DAWSS) are also investigated by considering the effects of heat generated by the body. Utilizing the FVM and SIMPLE scheme for pressure–velocity coupling is a good approach to investigating CBVs for five different viscosity models. In the results, it is shown that the θ and Δp+ increase with increasing Reynolds number (Re) in the CBVs. By enhancing the Re from 90 to 120 in the Cross viscosity model, the Δp+ changes about 1.391 times. The DAWSS grows by increasing the Re in all viscosity models. This increase in DAWSS leads to an increasing velocity gradient close to the cerebral vessel wall.

Evaluating the effects of bifurcation angle on the performance of a novel heat exchanger based on contractual theory

In this study, numerical and experimental analysis is presented to study the influences of bifurcation angles on the thermo-hydraulic performance in a novel heat exchanger by adopting contractual theory. The parameters of overall heat transfer coefficient, exergy efficiency, pressure drop, and coefficient of performance are investigated with three bifurcation angles (α = 120o, 150o, 180o). The mass flow rate in shell side is constant at 0.33 kg/s whereas the mass flow rates in tubes fluctuate from 0.169 to 0.331 kg/s. The numerical model was accomplished and the numerical results were validated by the experimental results and the error percentages are agreeable. The results show that the novel configurations of the heat exchanger based on constructed theory enhance heat transfer compared to standard shapes. The bifurcation angle of 150o accomplishes the highest enhancement of heat transfer whereas the heat exchanger with a bifurcation angle of 180o has the highest pressure drop. The configuration with α = 150o achieves higher values of COP compared to the other angles. The exergy efficiency improves with Re where the configuration with α = 180o has higher exergy efficiency. The contours, streamlines, and vectors of the temperature, velocity, and pressure distributions give investigation for the fluid stream inside the shell and tubes.

Characterisation of acoustic louvres panel for Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) noise control

This paper presents the results of research about louvre panels with 4 blades, 5 blades, and 6 blades for mechanical and acoustical performance which installed at the outlet of the ducting system. The mechanical performance will show up the airflow velocity and pressure drop, for the acoustical performance will analysed for its ability to reduce noise in the HVAC System. The measurement method used a rectangular linear duct with the inlet of a fan as an airflow source and loudspeaker as a noise source. The ability tested from the acoustic parameters of TL and the directivity of the noise from the outlet section, as well as mechanical analysis performance based on airflow and pressure drop. For the pressure drop parameter value is up to 20 Pa for 4 blades louvre, and about 24 Pa for 5 blades and 6 blades louvre. By using third octave band filter from 20 to 8000 Hz, the highest TL value is at 27 dB at a frequency of 63 Hz. For the directivity used to determine the distribution of sound energy around the outlet, it shows that the highest SPL value is at a frequency of 1 kHz with the difference from the perpendicular angle of the outlet after being given a louvre acoustic panel of 12 dB. So, the installation of louvre panels has small of pressure drop effect, but it can be effective for noise reduction.

Investigation on separation characteristics of gas–liquid two-phase flow around the perforated tube

Gas-liquid separator plays an important role in the reactor fission gas removal system. Utilizing the differential pressure formed by flow around the perforated tube, the separator achieves gas–liquid separation, meanwhile having advantages such as simple structure. The evolution characteristics of gas–liquid interface and the variation of parameters such as separation efficiency and pressure drop under plug flow and slug flow are investigated. The void fraction in wake region is only related to the inlet volumetric fraction. The variation of air separation efficiency with inlet volumetric fraction is influenced by the inlet flow pattern, and the separation purity increases with the inlet volumetric fraction. The prediction methods of air separation efficiency, pressure drop and other parameters based on Weber number and liquid phase Reynolds number are obtained in accordance with dimensional analysis and minimum kinetic energy principle with the prediction accuracy within ±20 %, which provides guidance for practical application and optimization.

Optimization of structural and operational parameters for the multi-size sinter vertical waste heat recovery with the objective of the income exergy

To be consistent with the actual production, this paper establishes the 2-D steady-state mathematical model of the porous media to numerically analyze influences of structural and operational parameters on the vertical cooling process by applying particle characteristic parameters, and heat transfer and resistance correlations of the multi-size sinter. Considering comprehensive effects of the temperature and pressure drop, the operating and structural parameters are optimized with the objective of the maximum income exergy of the gas. Results show that the numerical model established in this paper can well predict the gas-solid heat transfer process in the sinter bed with the maximum error of 7%. Besides, the income exergy of the gas increases and decreases with the sinter outlet temperature and gas outlet temperature increasing, respectively. The reduction in the equivalent particle diameter is conducive to improving the income exergy. What’s more, the income exergy of the gas first ascends and then descends with the increase of the flow rate ratio of gas to sinter and the height of the sinter layer. Therefore, optimal values of the flow rate ratio of the gas to sinter and the height of the sinter layer are 1,050–1,540 m3·h−1 and 7–11.5 m within the scope of this study, respectively.

Experimental study of rheological behavior of MWCNT (50%)-MgO (50%)/SAE40 hybrid nanofluid: Dynamic viscosity optimization and numerical simulation of turbulent flow

In the present report, the rheological behavior of MWCNT (50 %)-MgO (50 %)/SAE40 hybrid nanofluid (HNF) is investigated experimentally/statistically/numerically in different laboratory conditions. Viscosity is measured at temperatures of T = 25–50 °C, solid volume fraction of SVF = 0.0625–1 % and a shear rate of SR = 666.5–9331 s−1. The rheological behavior of the resulting HNF is fitted by the Ostwald–de Waele model. Mathematical calculations based on the power-law model and considering the dependence of viscosity on the SR, show that the HNF is a pseudo-plastic non-Newtonian fluid. The highest values ​​of increase and decrease of viscosity are equal to + 28.70 % (at T = 25 °C, SVF = 1 % and SR = 2666 s−1) and −5.91 % (at T = 25 °C, SVF = 0.0625 % and SR = 3999 s−1, respectively). Based on the response surface methodology (RSM), a mathematical model with a coefficient of determination of 0.9994 is presented to estimate laboratory data. Using a numerical simulation of flow in the branch pipe, the parameters of pressure drop, shear rate and flow velocity compared to the witness fluid flow increase by + 17.05 %, +18.43 %, and + 3.29 %, respectively.

Experimental Analysis of Flow Characteristics and Annular Flow Boundaries of the Highly Viscous Oil/Water Lubricated Flow

Summary Theoretical research on the characteristics of two-phase flow in horizontal pipelines is very important in the petroleum industry because a large amount of pumping power can be derived from the water-lubricated transportation of heavy or extraheavy crude oil. Experimental research of oil/water two-phase flow with water as the continuous phase in horizontal pipelines is carried out using tap water and two mineral oils with viscosity of approximately 0.743, 412, and 686 mPa·s, respectively. Two oil/water mixing devices of a water-ring generator and T-shaped three-way pipe are adopted to compare the effect of oil/water annular flow. Pressure drop parameters, apparent viscosity, clear pictures, flow pattern maps, and resistance characteristics of oil/water two-phase flow are displayed in this article, together with comprehensive comments. Moreover, obtained results are compared with theoretical findings, experimental results, and empirical laws of different scholars in the literature. According to the ratio of fluid kinetic energy (inertial force) to potential energy (buoyancy), Froude number (Fr) is introduced to reach the state of hydrodynamic lift balance. Based only on experimental observations of the position of the layered/annular transition, a novel criterion is proposed to determine the regions with suitable operating conditions for application.

Scaling law of the one-direction flow characteristics of symmetric Tesla valve

ABSTRACT A Tesla valve is a kind of micro-valve without moving parts. Due to the great difference between the reverse and forward flow, the Tesla valve is often used in passive fluid control devices. However, most of the current Tesla valve components are optimized and designed based on asymmetric structures. In this study, a Tesla valve pipe system model with symmetric structure is proposed. The characteristics of fluid flow and pressure drop were studied by finite element method and dimensional analysis. First, the pressure drop characteristics of symmetric and asymmetric Tesla valves with different Reynolds number are considered. The results show that the better the symmetry, the better the one-direction flow characteristics of Tesla valve system. Afterwards, through parametric analysis, computational fluid dynamics was used to verify flow characteristics of completely symmetrical Tesla valve system. The shunt angle, shunt pipe diameter and number of valves have significant effects on the pressure drop characteristics of the system. Eventually, based on numerical simulation results, by using the dimensional analysis method, the modification parameter was introduced to obtain the scaling law between the pressure drop and other parameters of the completely symmetrical Tesla valve piping system.

Evaluation Criterion of Proton Exchange Membrane (ECPEM) fuel cells considering inserted porous media inside the gas flow channel

• Electrochemical and heat transfer analyses of proton exchange membrane fuel cell. • Introducing a new design using porous media inside the gas flow channel. • Evaluating the power density, voltage, pressure drop and Nu as the outputs. • Define a new parameter “Evaluation Criterion of Proton Exchange Membrane (ECPEM)”. • Training an ANN model to calculate the optimum value of ECPEM to be 78.88. The focus of this study is to evaluate the effects of porous media inside the gas flow channel of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) on four different output parameters of voltage, power density, pressure drop, and Nusselt number (Nu) considering the impacts of its thickness, viscous resistance, and current density. Although it is proved that the new design will improve the convective heat transfer, there have not been studies to evaluate the effects of this porous layer on the electrochemical performance and heat transfer simultaneously. The results showed that viscous resistance has by far the highest impact on the power densities in high current densities while thicker inserted porous layer improves the performance. Results also demonstrate that a parameter is needed to consider all these output parameters at the same time, hence the Evaluation Criterion of Proton Exchange Membrane (ECPEM) is defined using artificial neural network (ANN) modeling. Single-objective optimization of the ECPEM is developed using the ANN models to produce 250,000 data. The optimum value of ECPEM was obtained 78.88 in the thickness of 500 μ m and the viscous resistance of 2,111,000 ( 1 m 2 ) while the current density is equal to 0.65 ( A / c m 2 ).

Measuring Technologies for CFB Solid Circulation Rate: A Review and Future Perspectives

Solid circulation rate (Gs) represents the mass flux of circulating particles in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) systems and is a significant parameter for the design and operation of CFB reactors. Many measuring technologies for Gs have been proposed, though few of them can be applied in industrial units. This paper presents a comprehensive study on measuring technologies, and the results indicate that though the accumulation method is most widely applied, it is constrained by the disturbance of normal particle circulation. Some publications have proposed mathematic models based on pressure drop or other parameters to establish Gs measurement models; these necessitate the accurate modeling of complicated gas-solid flows in industrial devices. Methods based on certain measurement devices to specify parameters like velocity require device endurance in the industrial operation environment and stable local gas-solid flow. The Gs measuring technologies are strongly influenced by local gas-solid flow states, and the packed bed flow in standpipes make the bottom of standpipes an ideal place to realize Gs measurement.

Effectiveness of actively adjusting vapour-liquid in the evaporator for heat transfer enhancement

• Active vapor–liquid adjustment is proposed to improve flow boiling heat transfer. • Principles and configuration of vapor–liquid adjustment evaporator are introduced. • Improved heat transfer and reduced pressure drop are simultaneously obtained. • Total temperature penalization ( TTP ) can be reduced by 14.4%. • Enhancement mechanisms of the novel evaporator are clarified. Vapor quality and mass flux are crucial parameters for heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of flow boiling. In this paper, they are actively adjusted by means of draining and refilling liquid refrigerant in the paths for evaporator performance enhancement. Principles of the vapor–liquid adjustment evaporator are introduced and its corresponding configuration is proposed. The mathematical model of this novel evaporator is established and validated by experiment data. Under different separation efficiencies, inlet vapor qualities and inlet mass flowrates, the vapor–liquid adjustment evaporator (AE) is investigated and compared to the conventional evaporator without vapor–liquid adjustment (CE) from the perspectives of overall performance and local behaviors. At the studied conditions, the improved heat transfer coefficient and reduced pressure drop are simultaneously obtained at a separation efficiency of 40%. Its superiority over the conventional evaporator is generally confirmed in terms of total temperature penalization. However, the excessive separation efficiency leads to the deteriorated performance due to the appearance of superheating. The major differences of local heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop between the vapor–liquid adjustment evaporator and conventional evaporator take place in the first and second paths, which are the consequences of the competition of the enhanced vapor quality and decreased mass flux. The stratified wave flow is mostly encountered for both evaporators. The vapor–liquid adjustment evaporator can be further enhanced by optimization. This study offers an innovative approach for flow boiling heat transfer enhancements.

Multi-Objective Optimization of Different Channel Shapes in Heat Exchangers

The effect of geometric parameters of the zigzag, rectangular, and serpentine channels on convective heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop was investigated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In all channels, the same boundary conditions were considered, and the number of steps was equal to 10. The simulations were performed for turbulent flows (liquid water as the operating fluid), and Reynolds number (Re) range between 20000 and 60000 was selected. The zigzag channel showed a best thermal performance and the serpentine channel showed the best hydraulic performance. The thermal-hydraulic performance (THP) factor was employed for comparing the channels. As the complexity of the channels surfaces increased, the two parameters of convective heat transfer coefficient (positive factor) and pressure drop (negative factor) increased simultaneously. Therefore, predictive correlations for friction factor and Nusselt number were presented using genetic algorithm (GA), and the multi-objective optimization was performed to obtain the most appropriate Nusselt number and minimum friction factor as the two basic objective functions. The resulting Pareto set, which includes the optimum geometric dimensions of the heat exchangers, allows a designer to choice the geometries based on higher heat transfer or lower pumping power.

Friction factor effect and heat transfer enhancement in combined dimple geometry arrange in different angle to flow direction

One of the most effective passive techniques for heat transfer enhancement in heat exchanger devices is the surface roughness flow augmentation model. In this study, the surface pressure and heat transfer are measured using experimental and computational methods in a rectangular channel. Three aspect ratios, AR, 0.05, 0.035, and 0.025, dimple channel with pitch to depth ratios, P/δ = 6 are tested in this study. The angled dimple surface comprises of two cases; case 1 0 °Circular - 45°Oval dimple (0 °C – 45°O) and Case2 45° Oval - 0° Circular dimple (45° O – 0 °C). The computational study is conducted for Reynolds number, Re 600–11000. The data from the compound-dimple channel is normalized with the smooth channel data of heat transfer and friction factor parameters. It is revealed that friction factors, f, friction factors ratio, f/fo, average Nusselt number, Nuavg, Nusselt number ratios, Nu/Nuo, are dependent on Re. The performance index on the compound dimple surface using the ratio of Nusselt numbers, Nu/Nuo, to friction factors, f/fo. The arrangement and location of the dimple have momentous consequences for the pressure drop parameters f and f/fo. The surface pressure and temperature show that the flow is uniformly distributed in the channel. The performance index improves and Re has strong influence on it. The compound dimple geometry does indicate a strong model for application in heat exchanger devices. Optimum performance of 49% for case 1 and 23% for case 2 are observed.

Using radial basis function network to model the heat transfer and pressure drop of water based nanofluids containing MgO nanoparticles

Present study is focused on feasibility of predicting the thermal and fluid properties of MgO/water nanofluid using radial based function (RBF) type artificial neural networks (ANNs). To design the ANN, Reynolds number and volume fraction of nanoparticles (ϕ) were considered as ANN inputs and in principle independent parameters and on the other hand, the parameters of relative pressure drop and relative heat transfer coefficient were considered as the outputs of this ANN. One of the important innovations in the present study is the attempt to simultaneously predict the relative pressure drop as undesirable and the relative heat transfer coefficient as undesirable parameters. The designed ANN using the radial basis function (RBF) was able to predict the laboratory parameters of relative pressure drop and relative heat transfer coefficient (RHTC) with 99.3% and 99.5% accuracy, respectively. It can drastically reduce the time and financial costs of laboratory methods. Based on the obtained results in ϕ = 0.125%, the unfavorable parameter (relative pressure drop) has a significant supremacy over the optimal parameter (RHTC) and therefore the ϕ is not suitable for use in thermal cycles. But on the other hand, with ϕ = 0.5%, the optimal parameter (RHTC) has a significant supremacy over the undesirable parameter (relative pressure drop), and therefore for MgO/water nanofluid, ϕ>0.5% are suitable for using in thermal cycles.

In-Vitro Visualization of Thrombus Growth in Artificial Lungs Using Real-Time X-Ray Imaging: A Feasibility Study

PurposeExtracorporeal membrane oxygenation has gained increasing attention in the treatment of patients with acute and chronic cardiopulmonary and respiratory failure. However, clotting within the oxygenators or other components of the extracorporeal circuit remains a major complication that necessitates at least a device exchange and bears risks of adverse events for the patients. In order to better predict thrombus growth within oxygenators, we present an approach for in-vitro visualization of thrombus growth using real-time X-ray imaging.MethodsAn in-vitro test setup was developed using low-dose anticoagulated ovine blood and allowing for thrombus growth within 4 h. The setup was installed in a custom-made X-ray setup that uses phase-contrast for imaging, thus providing enhanced soft-tissue contrast, which improves the differentiation between blood and potential thrombus growth. During experimentation, blood samples were drawn for the analysis of blood count, activated partial thromboplastin time and activated clotting time. Additionally, pressure and flow data was monitored and a full 360° X-ray scan was performed every 15 min.ResultsThrombus formation indicated by a pressure drop and changing blood parameters was monitored in all three test devices. Red and white thrombi (higher/lower attenuation, respectively) were successfully segmented in one set of X-ray images.ConclusionWe showed the feasibility of a new in-vitro method for real-time thrombus growth visualization by means of phase contrast X-ray imaging. In addition, with more blood parameters that are clinically relevant, this approach might contribute to improved oxygenator exchange protocols in the clinical routine.

Modeling transport of soft particles in porous media.

Flow-driven transport of soft particles in porous media is ubiquitous in many natural and engineering processes, such as the gel treatment for enhanced oil recovery. In many of these processes, injected deformable particles block the pores and thus increase the overall pressure drop and reduce the permeability of the particle-resided region. The change of macroscopic properties (e.g., pressure drop and permeability) is an important indicator of the system performance, yet sometimes impossible to be measured. Therefore, it is desirable to correlate these macroscopic properties with the measurable or controllable properties. In this work, we study flow-driven transport of soft particles in porous media using a generalized capillary bundle model. By modeling a homogeneous porous medium as parallel capillaries along the flow direction with periodically distributed constrictions, we first build a governing differential equation for pressure. Solving this equation gives a quantitative correlation between the total pressure drop and measurable parameters, including concentration and stiffness of particles, size ratio of particle to pore throat, and flow rate. The resultant permeability reduction is also obtained. Our results show that the total pressure drop and permeability reduction are both exponentially dependent on the particle concentration and the size ratio of particles to pore throat. With no more than two fitting parameters, our model shows excellent agreements with several reported experiments. The work not only sheds light on understanding transport of soft particles in porous media but also provides important guidance for choosing the optimal parameters in the relevant industrial processes.

The Effect of Transient Characteristics on Optimization of Fixed-Bed Regenerators

Abstract Fixed-bed regenerators (FBRs) have high sensible effectiveness, making them an energy-efficient air-to-air energy recovery exchanger (AAEE) to reduce energy consumption for ventilation in buildings. FBRs operate by alternately storing and releasing heat in fixed exchangers, which result in outlet temperature that varies with time during both heating and cooling periods. This variation in FBR's outlet temperature adds a new optimization variable that needs to be considered when designing FBRs. For example, in heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, careful design is required to prevent large variations in FBR’s outlet temperature (temperature swing (TS)), which might deteriorate occupant thermal comfort and introduce a variable load on the HVAC system. In this paper, a correlation for TS is developed as a function of FBR design parameters. FBRs optimization is performed considering TS as an additional objective to the traditional parameters of exchanger effectiveness, pressure drop, payback period (PBP), and mass. A selection procedure (decision-making procedure) is also integrated into the optimization process to select the optimized FBRs from Pareto fronts. The results show that when TS is included as an additional objective to the optimization and selection process, the selected optimized FBRs have higher mass and effectiveness.

Influence of Flow Divider on Overall Efficiency of a Hydrostatic Drivetrain of a Skid-Steer All-Wheel Drive Multiple-Axle Vehicle

The efficiency of a skid-steer, all-wheel drive, multiple-axle vehicle with a hydrostatic drivetrain equipped with low-speed motors when it operates on soft terrain was studied. A flow divider enables a single pump to simultaneously power more than one motor circuit with different pressures in each. It prevents kinematic discrepancy and improves vehicle mobility. There are two types of flow divider: spool type and gear type, where each type has its own set of performance characteristics, such as flow range, pressure drop, accuracy and application parameters. In the present work, the influence of the characteristics of both types of flow divider on overall vehicle driveline efficacy is described.