Administration Paradigm Research Articles

Public Value Management: An Emerging Paradigm in Public Administration

In 1975, Nicholas Henry puts forward five paradigms for public administration. These paradigms demonstrate the historical development of public administration since Woodrow Wilson's famous article. The existence of competing paradigms in public administration enhances theoretical development within the discourse. Public value management has brought a new dimension to the discourse. The purpose of this study is to investigate the paradigmatic shift in public management and to determine if the ‘Public Value Management’ represents an emerging paradigm in public administration. The paper attempts to answer two main questions: (a) Does public value management represent a new paradigm in the field of public administration? (b) Is public value management the future of public administration? To answer these questions, the study followed a historical approach to provide an accurate description and analysis of the current state as well as predicting its future course. Data for this study has been collected through a primary scoping of the literature on public administration. This paper shows that public value is not only an emerging paradigm in public administration but also the future. The study also found out that public value is the next big thing for governments aiming to deliver better public service. The public value paradigm is centered around the needs of the public as citizens, as well as consumers, the creation of value rather than achieving individual outcomes. It is more than the aggregation of individual needs with deliberation as to what constitutes public value at its core. In answering the aforementioned questions, the paper endeavor to establish the focus of public value management paradigm within the public administration field. The study adds value to the literature and theoretical development of public value

Intoxication without anticipation: Disentangling pharmacological from expected effects of alcohol.

The pharmacological effects of alcohol on executive function, craving and subsequent alcohol-seeking have been well documented. Yet, insufficient methodological controls within existing alcohol administration paradigms have meant that the relative importance of alcohol's pharmacological and anticipatory effects remains in need of further elucidation. The objective of this study is to disentangle alcohol's pharmacological effects from its anticipatory effects on alcohol-related cognitions and subsequent consumption. Inhibitory control, attentional bias and craving were assessed pre- and post-consumption in 100 participants who were randomly allocated to one of four beverage conditions in a two by two design: (1) alcohol aware (alcohol with participant knowledge (pharmacological/anticipation effects)), (2) alcohol blind (alcohol without participant knowledge; in a novel grain alcohol masking condition (pharmacological/no anticipation effects)), (3) placebo (no alcohol but participants were deceived (anticipation/non-pharmacological effects)) and (4) pure control (no alcohol with participant knowledge (no anticipation/non-pharmacological effects)). Findings suggest that the pharmacological effects of alcohol result in greater inhibitory control impairments compared with anticipated effects. Anticipatory but not the pharmacological effects of alcohol were found to increase attentional bias. Both pharmacology and anticipation resulted in increased craving, though higher levels of craving were observed due to alcohol's pharmacology. Furthermore, alcohol pharmacology resulted in heightened ad libitum consumption; however, anticipation did not. Changes in craving partially mediated the relationship between initial intoxication and subsequent drinking, while inhibitory control impairments did not. Successive alcohol consumption appears driven primarily by the pharmacological effects of alcohol which are exerted via changes in craving.

Institutionalizing innovation in welfare local services through co-production: toward a Neo-Weberian State?

AbstractInnovative practices based on the involvement of citizens as co-producers of welfare local services have been increasingly adopted by the public sector to effectively tackle emerging social problems. Despite the development in the literature on this subject, recent studies still do not clearly indicate which are the challenges for the institutionalization of such practices. By applying a governance lens to the analysis of co-production of local public services, this article aims to contribute to bridging this gap through the empirical analysis of the childcare experience in four European cities. More in detail, it debates the concepts of co-production and innovation in public service delivery within the context of the different waves of public administration reforms; and it investigates how three different sets of conditions – namely, state support and capacity; organizational cultures which support innovation; and integration with facilitative technologies – integrate to facilitate or hinder the institutionalization of co-production initiatives. The findings show that the enabling role of the state actor is a sine qua non to guarantee an institutionalization of these practices, particularly concerning the promotion of trust-building processes. Doing so, the article contributes to the international debate about the possible co-existing of the paradigms of public administration that are arising in the last decades to remedy the problems with the New Public Management; and it provides professionals working in public management and administration with key policy recommendations for the elaboration of new governance systems for the provision of social and welfare services.

Does policy style shift when the political regime changes? Insights from Turkey

ABSTRACT This article applies the concept of ‘policy styles’ to Turkey in order to contribute to the scholarly debate on the relationship between policy styles and political regime. By uncovering the distinctive features of Turkey’s policy processes through a within-case comparative approach, I advance two arguments. First, while policy styles are commonly viewed in literature as determined by administrative traditions, political institutions and policy paradigms, Turkey’s policy style has been more responsive to electoral politics, and, until recently, problem situation, in particular crises. Second, policy style is both a cause and a consequence of regime change. Turkey’s policy style has displayed both continuities as well as differences as it descended into authoritarianism. The characteristics of the policy style gradually undermine institutions of democracy. As democratic backsliding proceeds, government redesigns the institutional context of policy-making, reinforcing and consolidating the anti-democratic features of the policy style.

Development of a single-dose intranasal testosterone administration paradigm for use in men and women

For over two decades, researchers in the field of human social neuroendocrinology have been using single-dose pharmacological challenge protocols to determine the causal effects of testosterone on psychological, behavioural, and neural processes. Most of these single-dose administration studies have so far used (1) single-sex samples and (2) varying modes of testosterone administration (intramuscular, transdermal, sublingual, and intranasal) that produced vastly different dose-response curves. Moreover, whereas studies with male participants increased men's testosterone concentrations within the high normal physiological range, studies with women typically increased testosterone concentrations to supraphysiological levels. The purpose of this study was to develop a single-dose administration protocol using intranasal testosterone that would produce a proportionally similar rise in testosterone for both sexes. We found that an 11 mg intranasal testosterone dose in men and a 0.3 mg dose in women raised testosterone concentrations to the high normal physiological range for each sex, producing similar dose-response dynamics in both sexes. This paradigm will allow researchers to design studies with mixed-sex samples that test physiologically plausible sex differences/similarities in the causal effects of testosterone. It will also provide a replicable protocol to examine the possible adaptive functions of acute increases in testosterone in both sexes.

Вопросы цифровизации в контексте современного этапа эволюции публичного управления

The aim of the article is to determine the true place and role of digital technologies in the development and formation of the theory and practice of public administration at the present stage. The paper shows that at present, undeservedly little attention is paid to understanding the phenomenon of digitalization in terms of conceptualizing public administration, especially against the background of its crisis and intensive searches for a new paradigm of public administration. The author concludes that the significance of digitalization lies in creating the prerequisites for the formation of managerial consciousness in the subject of management.

Concepts and signs of public administration

The article is devoted to the definition of the concept in the signs of public administration. It was found that the transition from the state-centric paradigm of state administration to the concept of a service state led to the renewal of the conceptual apparatus of administrative law. There was a need to substantiate the essence and characteristics of public administration, with the help of which the goals of the existence of a service state are realized.It is substantiated that the category “public administration” occupies an important place in modern scientific research. Scientists of public administration are mainly considered as: a) a way of realizing public interest as the interest of a certain social community, united within the territory of the state; b) as a mechanism for the implemen-tation of state policy; c) as the activity of public authorities (or state bodies and local self-government bodies) aimed at achieving socially important goals.It has been established that the definition of the concept of “public administration” in a broad sense depends to a certain extent on the level of development of democratic relations in society. If the state is characterized as democratic, then public administration can be defined as professional, paid, funded from the state and local budgets, the activities of state bodies and local self-government bodies, their officials, aimed at ensuring the rights, needs and interests of man and citizen, civil society, subjects objects of entrepreneurial activity and other participants in public relations within the framework of a unified state (public) policy. In a narrow, technocratic, understanding, public administration of any state can be considered as a set of actions of state-authorized bodies and their officials aimed at implementing public policy measures in all spheres of society.It has been proved that the signs of public administration are: a) the relationship between the direction of actions of persons directly carrying out public administration measures and state (public) policy; b) the professional nature of public administration; c) detailed legal regulation of most of the public administration activities; d) the presence of a distribution of competence between various subjects of public administration in order to avoid duplication of their functions.

Policy Networks in Improving the Quality of Housing and Settlements in Indonesia (A Case Research of Bandung District)

Studies on slum housing and settlements have been carried out in many countries. The various studies show that the problem of housing and settlement areas can no longer be considered a simple problem. Different from the various studies on housing and settlement areas, this research employs the perspective of policy networks as a new public administration paradigm. The development issue on housing and settlement areas is regarded as one of the contemporary international issues contained in one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Several countries have become the focus of attention, such as: India, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Thailand. In Indonesia, the development of housing and settlement areas is mandated by law. The Local Government of Bandung District has made efforts to improve the quality of housing and settlements through such programs as the PLPBK, Rutilahu, and Kotaku. However, the improvement in the quality of housing and settlements in general has not touched the basic problem, namely the welfare of the community. The development is limited to physical improvements and lasts 1 (one) to 2 (two) years. In the third year the restored area becomes irregular / slum again. Therefore, it is recommended that the Bandung District government issue a local regulation in the form of a Regent Regulation concerning the improvement of housing and settlement quality and a plan for handling it as the legal bases. In addition, a collaboration of actors in policy networks should be formed based on the pentahelix model incorporating the actors of business, government, community, academic, and media.

A meta-regression of methodological features that predict the effects of medications on the subjective response to alcohol.

Alcohol administration paradigms have been used for early efficacy testing of novel compounds for alcohol use disorder (AUD). There has been an ongoing debate about sample characteristics and methodological features that affect the likelihood of detecting an early efficacy signal for AUD medications. We conducted a meta-regression to test whether the drinking level of the study sample and the peak breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) in the alcohol administration study predict the efficacy of AUD pharmacotherapies on the subjective responses to alcohol. We computed the effects of 21 medications on alcohol-induced stimulation, sedation, negative mood, and craving during alcohol administration in49studies. Meta-regression analyses indicated a significant and positive effect of pre-study drinks per month on alcohol-induced stimulation (β=0.142, p<0.0001), such that as drinking increases, the benefit of medication over placebo decreases. There was an effect of drinks per month on negative mood (β=-0.164, p=0.0248), such that at higher levels of drinks per month, the effects of medications on negative mood are stronger. For sedation, there was an effect of peak BrAC (β=0.119, p=0.0002), such that at low levels of peak BrAC, the effects of medication on sedation were null. For craving, there was a peak BrAC×drinks per month interaction such that at low levels of BrAC, a heavier drinking sample is required to detect the effects of medication on craving. Sensitivity analyses comparing naltrexone studies and non-naltrexone studies suggested that naltrexone was less sensitive to drinks per month across subjective response domains. These analyses show that design features are critical in studies that test the effects of medications on the subjective responses to alcohol. By specifying the significance and directionality of these effects, as well as the specific points in BrAC or drinks per month at which medication effects are detectable, the study offers recommendations for design features of alcohol administration studies that aim to inform AUD medication development.

Binge ethanol consumption-associated behavioral impairments in male mice using a gelatin-based drinking-in-the dark model.

Acute intoxication caused by binge ethanol drinking is linked to widespread impairments in brain functions. Various alcohol administration paradigms have been used in animals to model the heterogeneous clinical manifestation of intoxication in people. It is challenging to model a procedure that produces "visible intoxication" in rodents; however, manipulation of variables such as route of alcohol administration, time of availability, frequency, and duration and amount of ethanol exposure has achieved some success. In the current study, we employed a modified drinking-in-the-dark model to assess the validity of this model in producing "post-ethanol consumption intoxication" impairments following prolonged repeated daily voluntary "binge" ethanol consumption. Adult male C57BL/6J mice were allowed a daily 3-h access to non-alcoholic plain or ethanol-containing gel during the dark cycle for a total of 83 days. After the initial 2-month daily DID, ethanol intake patterns were intensely characterized during the next 3 weeks. Immediately following the last DID session (day 83), plain and ethanol gel-consuming mice were then subjected to behavioral tests of locomotor ability and/or anxiety (cylinder, wire grip, open field) followed by blood ethanol concentration measurement. Mice exhibited a relatively consistent ethanol consumption pattern during and across daily access periods. Ethanol intake of individual mice positively correlated with blood ethanol concentration that averaged 61.64±2.84mg/dL (n=12). Compared to the plain gel-consuming control mice, ethanol gel mice exhibited significant locomotor impairment as well as anxiety-like behavior, with the magnitude of impairments of key indices well correlated with blood ethanol levels. The gelatin vehicle-based voluntary ethanol drinking-in-the-dark model reliably produced post consumption acute movement impairments as well as anxiety-like behaviors even after 2 months of daily binge ethanol consumption in male mice. Taken together, this mouse binge ethanol model should facilitate the investigation of mechanisms of binge drinking in subjects chronically abusing ethanol and the search for effective novel treatment strategies.

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT OF INNOVATIONS IN THE SOCIO-HUMANITARIAN SPHERE: CHALLENGES AND WAYS TO OVERCOME

EU integration and globalization trends require new mechanisms and methods of regulating economic processes to transform Ukraine into an economically developed powerful state. Innovation is an integral part of any production cycle, but to achieve better results, innovation processes and relationships in the creation and implementation of innovative technologies in the national economy require active participation and great attention from the state. The main emphasis of such attention should be focused on organizational, legal and institutional support of innovation, which requires solving a vast number of problems of intensive development. The end of the twentieth century was a period of spreading ideas about the need to change the paradigm of public administration. Scientists began to realize the need to move to a new model of public administration based on strengthening the social nature of government. The change in approach implies an essential change in the state's role: from the producer of public goods to the regulator of market processes. During the implementation of this model, the most crucial effect is possible if the principles of openness, innovation, decentralization, and a combination of market and state regulation, individual freedom and new forms of individual and collective responsibility.

VIEŠOJO ADMINISTRAVIMO MODELIŲ VYSTYMOSI PERSPEKTYVOS MODERNIZMO IR POSTMODERNIZMO IDĖJŲ ŠVIESOJE

In the article the paradigm of traditional public administration is analysed by trying to accomplish the critique of the model in the cultural dimension direction and by identifying the crucial elements of post-modernism which, according to the authors, had made an impact for the formation of such a model. There are also revealed the parameters of post-modernism in metanarrative theories of rationality, as the grounded technological and instrumental relation towards traditional paradigm principles by stressing the hierarchical governance, bureaucratic relations, control mechanisms, rational organisational structure and functional division with professionalism. By identifying the main traits of traditional paradigm, the aspects and tendencies of post-modernist organisations are revealed and the controversial answer to the question about the relevance of traditional public administration model is presented.

Evaluating experimentation in the public sector: learning from a Brazilian innovation lab

This paper presents an initial evaluation of the GNova lab, with the aim of contributing to the policy lab literature and debate on the value generated by public sector innovation labs. GNova is a Brazilian federal government innovation lab dedicated to developing creative solutions to public policy problems through design-led experiments that involve the active participation of members of partner teams. In the context of a political transition, GNova carried out an evaluation process to assess the results of its projects. By using working principles as evaluation criteria, the process was design-led and consisted of two phases. The first was a workshop with project partners, followed by a series of in-depth interviews with participants in six selected projects. The findings were grouped into three types of effects (effects of the process, effects of products and effects of the participation). The evaluation, even though with a limited scope, confirmed the assumption that, in addition to effects from specific products delivered, the lab contributes to the development of competencies in the civil servants who participate in the process, in resonance with a public administration paradigm based on public value.

The state and biopolitics: towards the origins of interrelation

The subject of this research is the state as a biopolitical project founded on the principle of government intervention in life of the population.&amp;nbsp;Leaning on the ideas and theoretical intentions of the &amp;ldquo;archeology of power&amp;rdquo;, economic and political anthropology, the author examines the genesis of the state from biopolitical perspective, proceeding from the hypothesis of the initial animalization of human presence pursuant to state power, which at breaking point, turns into biopolitical death machine, or thanatopolitics.&amp;nbsp;In view of this, the author reveals the role of ancient state formations as the agents of forced &amp;ldquo;domestication&amp;rdquo; of the members of agricultural and cattle-raising societies based on the concentration of human resources and coercive labor as state-forming &amp;ldquo;technologies&amp;rdquo;, which allow producing surpluses appropriated by the power elites.&amp;nbsp;The idea of pastoralist power, which emerged along with the first states, identifies subjects to a herd under wardship, treating them as a form of wealth similar to livestock.&amp;nbsp;The main conclusion lies in explication of the biopolitical matrix of state administration, which identifies the subjects&amp;nbsp;of the state with livestock, and the state territory with enclosed pasture.&amp;nbsp;This leads to the parallels between cattle-raising and control over population, which paradigmatically determines the political modus&amp;nbsp;operandi&amp;nbsp;of state power that is implicit in the trajectory of its evolution up to the present day.&amp;nbsp;At the threshold of &amp;ldquo;evolution&amp;rdquo; of such administrative paradigm emerge the modern radical topoi of the antihuman &amp;ndash; the concentration camps (labor camps and death camps) organized by the model of cattle pens and slaughterhouses.

The intoxicated co-witness: effects of alcohol and dyadic discussion on memory conformity and event recall

RationaleCo-witness discussion is common and often witnesses are under the influence of alcohol. As such, it is important to understand how such factors may influence eyewitness testimony.ObjectivesWe combined a co-witness memory paradigm with an alcohol administration paradigm to examine the influence of alcohol and dyadic discussion on remembering a mock crime.MethodsIntoxicated and sober dyads discussed a previously seen video, whilst in a control condition sober and intoxicated individuals recalled the event on their own. Unknown to the dyads, each discussion partner saw a different version of the video including unique details not present in the other video version. All participants then engaged in a second individual recall attempt.ResultsDyads were more likely to recall misleading details in their individual recall attempts compared to the control group. Intoxicated and sober dyads were equally likely to report misleading information. Alcohol intoxication had no negative impact on individuals’ ability to correctly identify the source of their responses. Intoxicated participants recalled fewer details under free recall conditions. Alcohol had a detrimental effect on participants’ confidence in their free recall accounts.ConclusionsPossible alcohol-related and social-cognitive mechanisms are discussed which may contribute to the current findings as well as applied implications for interviewing intoxicated witnesses.

Neuroendocrine Response to Exogenous Ghrelin Administration, Combined With Alcohol, in Heavy-Drinking Individuals: Findings From a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Human Laboratory Study.

Accumulating evidence has established a role for the orexigenic hormone ghrelin in alcohol-seeking behaviors. Accordingly, the ghrelin system may represent a potential pharmacotherapeutic target for alcohol use disorder. Ghrelin modulates several neuroendocrine pathways, such as appetitive, metabolic, and stress-related hormones, which are particularly relevant in the context of alcohol use. The goal of the present study was to provide a comprehensive assessment of neuroendocrine response to exogenous ghrelin administration, combined with alcohol, in heavy-drinking individuals. This was a randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled human laboratory study, which included 2 experimental alcohol administration paradigms: i.v. alcohol self-administration and i.v. alcohol clamp. Each paradigm consisted of 2 counterbalanced sessions of i.v. ghrelin or placebo administration. Repeated blood samples were collected during each session, and peripheral concentrations of the following hormones were measured: leptin, glucagon-like peptide-1, pancreatic polypeptide, gastric inhibitory peptide, insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, cortisol, prolactin, and aldosterone. Despite some statistical differences, findings were consistent across the 2 alcohol administration paradigms: i.v. ghrelin, compared to placebo, increased blood concentrations of glucagon-like peptide-1, pancreatic polypeptide, cortisol, and prolactin, both acutely and during the whole session. Lower levels of leptin and higher levels of aldosterone were also found during the ghrelin vs placebo session. These findings, gathered from a clinically relevant sample of heavy-drinking individuals with alcohol use disorder, provide a deeper insight into the complex interplay between ghrelin and appetitive, metabolic, and stress-related neuroendocrine pathways in the context of alcohol use.

The construction of the Lachibaa Community Museum, in Magdalena Apasco, Etla Oaxaca. an approach to open government?

Open Government emerged in 2009 as a new paradigm of public administration and a new way of dealing with public affairs, based on the pillars, Transparency, Participation, Collaboration, Innovation and Accountability. Local governments have also joined in this effort; however little is known about what is happening in the municipalities of Indigenous Normative Systems. This paper analyzes the creation of the Lachibaa Community Museum, in Magdalena Apasco, Oaxaca, as a Collaborative process (pillar) of the current Open Government approach. It is explored how Open Government can be present in indigenous municipalities, which have a special legal regime that recognizes and respects their uses and customs.

FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF PUBLIC SERVANTS IN UKRAINE: ORGANIZATIONAL, LEGAL, AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

The subject of the research is the formation and development of the system of professional training of public servants in Ukraine. The relevance of this study is due to the fact that one of the most important tasks of the development of the public service institute in modern conditions is its professionalization, which is carried out primarily through the system of professional training of public servants. Methodology. The paper uses a historical approach, which has made it possible to study the process of formation and development of the system of professional training of public servants in Ukraine. Based on the method of systemic analysis, the current system of professional training of civil servants in Ukraine, its legal framework and strategic priorities for its reform are considered. Results. The purpose of the article is to analyze the process of formation and development of the system of professional training of public servants and ways to increase its efficiency in Ukraine in modern conditions. To achieve this goal, the following research objectives are set: to consider the evolution of the system of professional training of public servants in Ukraine; to analyze the development of the system of professional training of public servants in independent Ukraine; to determine the main directions of its reform in the modern conditions of state formation. The main stages of formation and development of the system of professional training of public servants in Ukraine are justified. The organizational, legal, and economic aspects of formation and development of the system of professional training of public servants in Ukraine, as well as regulatory bases of formation and development of competence of public servants are analyzed. It is established that its financial and resource provision is important for the development of the system of professional training of public servants. Emphasis is placed on the need for continuous professional training of civil servants for their mobility, prompt and effective response to societal challenges in a paradigm of public administration, local government reform and decentralization of power in Ukraine through the development of formal, non-formal and informal education. It is concluded that ensuring the effective operation of public servants directly depends on increasing the level of their competence through professional training. The strategic principles of development of the system of professional training of civil servants are analyzed and the ways of increasing the efficiency of the existing system of professional training of civil servants, heads of local state administrations, their first deputies and deputies, local self-government officials, and deputies of local councils are determined, and the new model of the system of professional education of public servants, which based on European principles and standards for the development of adult education for life, are proposed.

Formation of Digital Competence of State Servants in the Conditions of Government Digitalisation: The Problem Statement

In the context of public administration digitalization the importance of human resources and their quality increases, which requires state employees to possess new digital competencies (knowledge and skills), and often to master new professional functions that enable them to function effectively in the new digital environment. However, under these conditions, in the process of their professional socialization, a number of problems emerge. The purpose of the research is to determine the conditions and factors affecting the digital competency formation required in the transition to digital public administration of the civil servants digital competencies, as well as to identify contradictions that emerge in their formation process. The study was conducted on the basis of the information society concept, E-Government and the paradigm of the new public administration. The main research methods were documents analysis and statistical data analysis. The study has fixed that one of the factors hindering successful professional socialization in the context of public administration digitalisation is the uncertainty in the content of servants’ digital competencies they need, including taking into account future development prospects. The existing vocational education system cannot form digital competencies at the required level for several reasons (closed access to basic digital services and platforms, a variety of departmental digital services and workflow systems available in only one department, etc.). Civil servants are forced to master digital technology is more on its own. The main contradiction emerges in the process of creating digital competencies is the lack of officially fixed requirements for the availability of state and municipal employees’ digital competencies and the lack of mechanisms for their assessment in the selection or certification process. Moreover, the need to master the relevant digital competencies follows from regulatory documents.&#x0D; Keywords: digital competency of civil servants, digital competencies, digital literacy, professional socialization, digitalisation of public administration

Economic efficiency of the modern paradigm of public governance

This study analyzes the modern paradigm of public administration and identification of trends in economic efficiency of public administration in modern conditions and the impact of certain managerial, economic, legal, institutional, political factors on it. Research methods are as follows: comparison, generalization, statistical-analytical method, methods of retrospective, perspective, correlation-regression analysis, forecasting, simulation modeling. In the course of the study it has been found in recent years (2009-2019) there has been a steady downward trend in economic efficiency of public administration at the level of global social-economic activities. It has been established that among the whole list of factors in 2019. The following factors had the greatest impact on efficiency: Government Effectiveness r = 0.90 Regulatory Quality r = 0,899 Rule of Law r = 0,901; and in general for 2008-2019. Political Stability and Absence of Violence r2 = 0,9420; Government Effectiveness r3 = 0,7540. This is a consequence of global political destabilization, as well as the imperfection of approaches to the implementation of government management at the level of individual states.