Parabronema Skrjabini Research Articles

Assessing the effectiveness of fenbendazole supramolecular complexes against schistosomiasis, monieziosis and parabronemosis in sheep

Helminth infections pose a significant economic threat to livestock production, causing productivity declines and, in severe cases, mortality. Conventional anthelmintics, exemplified by fenbendazole, face challenges related to low solubility and the necessity for high doses. This study explores the potential of supramolecular complexes, created through mechanochemical modifications, to address these limitations. The study focuses on two key anthelmintics, praziquantel (PZQ) and fenbendazole (FBZ), employing mechanochemical techniques to enhance their solubility and efficacy. Solid dispersions (SD) of PZQ with polymers and dioctyl sulfosuccine sodium (DSS) and fenbendazole with licorice extract (ES) and DSS were prepared. The helminthicidal activity of these complexes was assessed through helminthological dissections of sheep infected with Schistosoma turkestanicum, moniesiasis, and parabronemosis. In the assessment of supramolecular complex of FBZ (SMCF) at doses ranging from 1.0 to 3.0 mg/kg for the active substance (AS), optimal efficacy was observed with the fenbendazole formulation containing arabinogalactan and polyvinylpyrrolidone at a 3.0 mg/kg dosage. At this concentration, the formulation demonstrated a remarkable 100% efficacy in treating spontaneous monieziosis in sheep, caused by Moniezia expansa (Rudolphi, 1810) and M. benedenii (Moniez, 1879). Furthermore, the SMCF, administered at doses of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 mg/kg, exhibited efficacy rates of 42.8%, 85.7%, and 100%, respectively, against the causative agent of parabronemosis (Parabronema skrjabini Rassowska, 1924). Mechanochemical modifications, yielding supramolecular complexes of PZQ and FBZ, present a breakthrough in anthelmintic development. These complexes address solubility issues and significantly reduce required doses, offering a practical solution for combating helminth infections in livestock. The study underscores the potential of supramolecular formulations for revolutionizing helminthiasis management, thereby enhancing the overall health and productivity of livestock.

MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS OF NEMATODE WORMS PARABRONEMA SKRJABINI IN CAMELS (Camelus dromedaries) IN IRAQ

The current study was designed for analysis of the pattern of the nucleotide sequence of the tissue DNA isolates based on the ITS2,28SrDNA gene by the traditional polymerase chain reaction. All amplicons were well suited for the prepared primer with size 873 bp . and identical ratio ranged 87.2- 98% of the same species, as included a high similarity of the isolates taken camels in Iran and Iraq related to Parabronema skrjabini . Phylogenic tree inferred the degree of relatedness between 28SrDNA sequences deposited in the international nucleotide bank sequence database (NCBI). The sequence of Parabronema skrjabini was recorded in the Genbank under accession number MT742154.1.

Molecular study on nematode infection in sheep abomasa: a regional investigation in Iran and Iraq.

Gastrointestinal nematodes are leading causes of loss in livestock and are the primary restriction to its profitable production, worldwide. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence and diversity of sheep abomasum nematode species in Urmia (Iran) and Soran (Iraq) slaughterhouses from October 2019 to January 2021. A total of 280 abomasa (each city 140 samples) were randomly collected from the slaughtered sheep. The abomasal content and mucosa were removed and washed. The collected nematodes were morphologically identified. Genomic DNA was extracted from identified nematodes and a fragment from the internal transcribed spacer 2 ribosomal ribonucleic acid (ITS2-rDNA) gene was amplified. In Urmia city, two species including Teladorsagia circumcincta (40.7%), and two morphotypes of Marshallagia species; Marshallagia marshalli (35.0%) and M. trifida (4.3%) were identified. In Urmia city, 52.9% of the examined sheep were infected with at least one species of nematodes. The overall prevalence of abomasa infection with nematodes in Soran city was 91.4%. In the examined sheep abomasa in Soran city, four species of nematodes were identified, including Marshallagia species with two morphotypes, M. marshalli (85.0%) and M. trifida (20.7%), Teladorsagia circumcincta (32.1%), Parabronema skrjabini (1.4%), and Haemonchus contortus (0.7%). Except for H. contortus, all the other identified nematode species were confirmed using molecular techniques. It was concluded that abomasal nematode infections are widespread in sheep particularly in Soran city. Marshallagia marshalli and T. circumcincta were most prevalent nematodes in both regions. In addition, further molecular studies are recommended to understand the intra-specific variations in the genus Marshallagia and more accurate identification of morphotypes in these regions.

COX1 gene and ITS-2 region: A comparative study of molecular diagnosis of Parabronema skrjabini in camels (Camelus dromedaries), Al-Najaf Province, Iraq

The current study was contributed to the analysis of the nucleotide sequence pattern of the nucleotide sequence of the tissue DNA isolates based on the Internal Transcribed Spacer ribosomal DNA (ITS2rDNA) gene and Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 mitochondrial DNA (COX1 mtDNA) using the traditional polymerase chain reaction (150 samples of abomasum collected directly from camel carcasses after working in Al-Najaf slaughterhouse from 1/10/2019 to 1/2/2020). ITS2rDNA were well suited for the prepared primer with size783 bp and identical ratio ranged 81.17-99.73% of the same species, as indicated a high similarity of the isolates taken from two-humped camels in China or less related to Parabronema skrjabini in sheep and goat. In addition, the study identified the number of the mutations within the four COX1 gene and ITS-2 region, which were the most conservative region of the host's species, supporting the concept of host specificity with Parabronema skrjabini. The COX1 gene and ITS-2 region applied to confirm the diagnosis using a universal primer, as it included eight isolates with a size of 689 bp, identical values were ranged from 84.99-98.02% depending on the multiple sequence alignment and showed an increase in the substitution level among isolates at an upper taxonomic level. Studying of the COX1 gene and ITS-2 region in Parabronema skrjabini demonstrated a significant relation in the cluster and an early common ancestor with isolates of the two-humped camel (China). As for the COX1 gene and ITS-2 region, the phylogenetic relationship supported the ribosomal gene results, especially with Habronema muscae or related species such as Habronema majus, Dirofilaria repens, Dipetalonema evansi, Setaria tundra, Cercopithifilaria sp towards the root node. Therefore, considering COX1 gene and ITS-2 region as an ideal tool in determining the phylogenetic history of the sequence maps, but less conservative mode than the ITS2 ribosome gene based to a taxonomic species level.

Morphological and molecular identification of Parabronema skrjabini of camels (Camelus dromedary) in Najaf province

Morphological and molecular identification of Parabronema skrjabini of camels (Camelus dromedary) in Najaf province

Molecular study on parasitic nematodes infection in the abomasum of sheep in Ilam, Iran.

Parasitic nematodes of ovine abomasum are of economic and hygienic importance throughout the world and Iran. This study was aimed to evaluate molecular identity and species diversity of parasitic nematodes in the abomasum of slaughtered sheep in Ilam, Iran. In this study, a total number of 240 of abomasa were randomly collected from the slaughtered sheep at industrial slaughterhouses in Ilam in all seasons between 2017 and 2018. The abomasum content and abomasal mucosa were removed and washed. The collected nematodes were morphologically identified. The genomic DNA was extracted and a 300 bp-fragment-length from internal transcribed spacer 2 ribosomal ribonucleic acid (ITS2-rRNA) gene was amplified. Overall prevalence was 66.70% (160/240). Five species of four genera of nematodes including Marshallagia marshalli (43.70%), Ostertagia circumcincta (15.50%), Parabronema skrjabini (5.00%), M. occidentalis (2.50%), and Haemonchus contortus (0.04%) were identified. Ostertagia circumcincta and H. contortus were found to be different in two nucleotides. There was no nucleotide difference between M. marshalli and M. occidentalis. This study revealed a significant prevalence of parasitic nematodes in sheep abomasum and species diversity of Trichostrongylid nematodes in the region.

Parabronema skrjabini (Nematoda: Habronematidae) infection and development in the intermediate host-Haematobia irritans (Linnaeus, 1758) in Inner Mongolia, China

Parabronemosis is a disease that severely threatens camel health, causing huge economic losses to industries involved in camel husbandry. Previous studies have reported that horn flies (Haematobia irritans) act as intermediate hosts of Parabronema skrjabini; however, the infection and developmental processes of P. skrjabini in horn flies remain unclear. In the present study, the infection rates of P. skrjabini were determined in morphologically and molecularly identified horn flies collected from Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) producing regions in Inner Mongolia, China that have high P. skrjabini infection rates. The horn flies were dissected to obtain the nematode larvae at various instar stages. The P. skrjabini found in the different instar stages of horn fly instars were counted and identified to assess the infection and developmental status. Nematode larvae at different developmental stages were obtained from the horn fly instars for further molecular analysis. Sequencing results confirmed that the nematode larvae were P. skrjabini. Furthermore, we found that the mean growth rate of the nematode larva increased as the horn fly instars develops. The results suggested that P. skrjabini infected the horn flies at the larval instar stage, and that the nematode larvae developed simultaneously with the horn fly instars stages. Our findings provide useful information into the elucidation of P. skrjabini infection and life history by studying horn fly development.

Diversity and burden of helminthiasis in wild ruminants in Iran.

This paper aimed to investigate the diversity and burden of helminthiasis in Ovis orientalis (n = 26), Capra aegagrus (n = 29) and Gazella subgutturosa (n = 24) grazed in 37 National Parks in 9 provinces of Iran. The organs and body cavities infected by helminths included gastrointestinal tract, peritoneal cavity, heart, liver and lungs. The contents were extracted and washed under running water and intestinal and lung-isolated nematodes were cleared in lactophenol and subsequently fixed, and cestodes were stained with alum carmine and mounted en face in Berlese's fluid under slight pressure between a microscopic slide and cover slip. The helminth species identified in this study include: intestinal nematodes (Marshallagia marshalli, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Ostertagia ostertagi, Nematodirus oiratianus, Nematodirella longispiculata, Skrjabinema ovis, Trichuris ovis, Trichuris discolor, Parabronema skrjabini), lungworms (Protostrongylus rufescens, Cystocaulus ocreatus), adult cestodes (Moniezia expansa, Helicometra giardi, Avitellina centripunctata, Stilesia globipunctata) and metacestodes (Cysticercus spp., hydatid cyst, Cysticercus tenuicollis). The proportion of the different helminth species ranged from low to moderate (3.45-46.15%) and the intensity of helminth isolation from the different ruminants ranged between 2 and 20. All the taxa identified in our study have been reported in wild animal species around the world. The presence of Cysticercus spp. with cardiac involvement in G. subgutturosa and all helminths of C. aegagrus was reported for the first time in Iran. A significant reduction was observed in worm burden, compared with previous studies in Iran, indicating changes in wildlife host-parasite systems, which can be linked to many reasons including climate changes, public health policies (e.g., strategic anthelmintic use in domestic ruminants), anthropogenic factors and environmental changes (e.g., urbanization or agricultural expansion, physical barriers), as well as vegetation growth and host availability.

First Molecular Characterization and Seasonality of Larvae of Trichostrongylid Nematodes in Arrested Development in the Abomasum of Iranian Naturally Infected Sheep

The aim of this study was to determine molecularly the species of larvae of trichostrongylid nematodes in arrested development in the abomasum of sheep from Iran and their seasonality. A total of 240 sheep abomasa were randomly collected at different seasons from Ilam abattoir in 2017-2018. The adult nematodes were isolated and identified. The mucosa of the abomasum was removed and digested using a pepsin solution. DNA from different parts of the abomasum was extracted using a SinaPureTM kit. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification was performed; the ITS2-rRNA gene was amplified using specific primers. Amplified PCR products were purified and sequenced by Bioneer Corporation (South Korea). The obtained ITS2 sequences were aligned using BLAST analysis and submitted to GenBank. Morphologically, five species of adult nematodes of four genera including Haemonchus contortus, Marshallagia marshalli, Marshallagia occidentalis, Parabronema skrjabini, and Teladorsagia circumcincta were identified. Marshallagia marshalli (65.4%, 120.2 ± 28.5) had the highest prevalence during autumn. Molecularly, arrested development of larvae of M. marshalli and T. circumcincta were demonstrated in mucosa of the abomasum in autumn and early winter using PCR of the ITS-2 region of rRNA. The results evidenced the first molecular characterization of the larvae of trichostrongylid nematodes from abomasum of sheep from Iran.

Haematobium irritans and Haematobium titillans as potential vectors of Parabronema skrjabini in camels (Camelus bactrianus) in Inner Mongolia, China.

Parabronema skrjabini is one of the most harmful nematodes to camels and is responsible for economic losses in animal husbandry industry. There is an urgent need for in-depth studies of potential vectors of the nematode due to its scant regarding information. As previous studies indicated that flies may be the vectors of P. skrjabini, we captured flies in the main camel-producing areas of Inner Mongolia. After autopsy of the specimens of two species of horn flies, we observed the morphology of the suspected nematode larvae found in them. Internal transcribed spacer ribosomal-DNA gene sequences were considered the best candidate to confirm the species of the larvae found. Our results showed that the homology compared with P. skrjabini was 99.5% in GenBank. Subsequently, we preliminarily identified two species of horn flies through morphological observation and then sequenced the mitochondrial-DNA-gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I obtained from two species of horn flies, with 100 and 99.2% similarity to sequences deposited in GenBank, respectively. Thus, we identified Haematobia titillans and Haematobia irritans and provided evidence for their potential role as vectors of parabronemosis. Our study provides reference for future research on the life history of the nematode and the vectors of parabronemosis.

Нематоды пищеварительной системы домашних жвачных Узбекистана

Objective of research. A study of species composition of nematodes parasitizing the digestive system of domestic ruminants in Uzbekistan, analysis of seasonal dynamics of infestation and features of the nematode fauna in plains and foothill-mountain areas. Material and methods. In the period of 2014–2015, the digestive tracts of 206 head of cattle and 878 head of small cattle from the farms of Tashkent, Syr-Darya, Dzhizak, Namangan, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Navoiy and Bukhara regions as well as Karakalpakstan autonomous republic were investigated by the method of full helminthological dissection. Results and discussion. 30 nematode species were found in digestive tracts of domestic ruminants of Uzbekistan; 28 nematode species in sheep, 26 species in goats, and 22 species in cattle. The highest rates of extensity of infection (EI) and intensity of infection (II) were detected in Ostertagia ostertagi, Marshallagia marshalli, Teladorsagia circumcincta and Parabronema skrjabini. An increase of EI and II in summer and autumn period was typical for the most of the discovered nematode species. However, EI in O. ostertagi, T. circumcincta, Marshallagia spp. and P. skrjabini was relatively stable in all seasons, but II increased to autumn. 26 nematode species were registered in plains; only 3 of them with high EI and II. 28 nematode species were registered in foothill-mountain areas, 8 of them showed high rates of EI and II. 24 species of nematodes are common in both areas. The obtained results allow us to conclude that it is necessary to improve helminth control of ruminants in Uzbekistan. Alternation of pastures and regulation of grazing, as well as preventive dehelmintization should not be ignored; observe the optimal requirements for feeding and management of animals.

Molecular and morphological characterization of Parabronema skrjabini of sheep and goats at three different geographical zones in Iran.

Parabronema skrjabini is a spirurid nematode of the family Habronematidae that lives in the abomasum of ruminants such as sheep and goats. The purpose of this study was to investigate the molecular and morphological aspects of Parabronema skrjabini in sheep and goats in Iran. The worms were collected from these animal species from three different regions. An internal transcribed spacer 2 ribosomal DNA (ITS2-rDNA) fragment of Parabronema skrjabini was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a pair of specific primers (Para-Ir-R and Para-Ir-F). Morphological studies based on the body length, the frontal shield, spicules of male and egg dimensions were performed. ITS2-rDNA sequences were between 167 and 299 bp in different isolates. ITS2 homology in different isolates was between 68% and 77% compared with the sequence data in GenBank. Morphological results showed that the average length of male and female worms in sheep were 16.5 mm and 36 mm and in goats 16 mm and 35.5 mm, respectively. The average length of the small and large spicules in sheep were 657.5 μm and 304.07 μm and in goats 653.08 μm and 302.66 μm, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first study in the world exploring the genetic diversity of Parabronema in sheep and goats. Add this sentence in discussion: the low ITS2-rDNA identity in different isolates from Iran as compared to the reference sequence in GenBank (68-77%) raise questions regarding the species identity of the parasites isolated in Iran.

A Prevalence of abomasal worms in sheep in AL-Kut province abattoir

This study is carried out to determine the prevalence of abomasal nematodes of slaughtered sheep in AL-Kut province from the beginning of October 2013 to the March 2014. A total of 450 abomasum from sheep with different ages and sexes were collected and examined for nematodes detection. The results showed that 311 samples of examined sheep abomasal were infected with Haemonchus contortus. Ostertigia spp. and Parabronema skrjabini and the highest level of prevalence was showed in December (100%) and lowest level was recorded in March (43.47%) and the percentage of infected in young animals (92.35%) compared with adults while the females revealed a high prevalence (75.37%) as compared with males (66.5%). In conclusion, there was a significant effects for the month's ages and sexes on the prevalence of abomasal nematodes parasites.

Parasites of One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran: An Abattoir Study

This study was conducted in Tehran and Najaf Abad abattoirs to determine the parasitic infection in Camelus dormedarius in Iran. A total of 286 camels from abattoirs of Tehran and Najaf Abad were examined during July 2011 until August 2012 from which 100 camels were evaluated for protozoa and external parasitic infection, and 186 camels were evaluated for internal parasites. A total 9 nematodes species, 4 cestodes species and 7 species of external parasites were identified as follows: Nematodes: Haemonchus longistipes (36%), Parabronema skrjabini (2.1%), Camelostrongylus mentulatus (5.3%), Trichostrongylus mentulatus (0.5%), Physocephalus sexalatus (0.5%), Nematodirella longissimespiculata (0.5%), Nematodirus oiratianus (0.5%), Nematodirella cameli (1.6%), Onchocerca fasciata (15%). Cestodes: Moniezia expansa (5.9%), Moniezia benedeni (2.6%), Stilesia globipunctata (23.6%), Hydatid cyst (in lung 16.6%, in liver 5.9% and in spleen (1.6%) Arthropoda: Hyalomma dromedarii (63.8%), Hyalomma anatolicum. anatolicum (4.6%) Hyalomma schulzei (0.4%), Hyalomma detritum (0.4%), Rhipicephalus turanicus (0.9%), Cephalopina titillator (48/3%), Linguatula serrate (64/7%). According the results of this study Haemonchus longistipes and Hyalomma dromedarii were more prevalent in camel. The results of this study showed that strategic control, including external and internal parasites of camel should be considered. This is the first report of Hyalomma detritum and Rhipicephalus turanicus from camel in Iran.

Molecular characterization of the first internal transcribed spacer of rDNA of Parabronema skrjabini for the first time in sheep.

Parabronema skrjabini is a spirurid nematode of the family Habronematidae that lives in the abomasum of ruminants such as sheep and goats. The purpose of this study was to investigate the molecular aspects of Parabronema skrjabini in sheep. The worms were collected from sheep in Sanandaj (west of Iran). The first internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) nucleotide fragments of Parabronema skrjabini were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using two pairs of specific primers (Para-Ir-R and Para-Ir-F). ITS1 homology in the sequence of this study was 69% compared with the sequence data in GenBank. To our knowledge, this is the first study in the world exploring the genetic diversity of P. skrjabini in sheep based on ITS1.

PREVALENCE OF ABOMASAL NEMATODES IN SHEEP SLAUGHTERED AT BANEH TOWN

Livestock production covers up to 40% of the gross value of agricultural production globally. Gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants are one of the major causes of productivity loss. This study was carried out to determine the correlation between the prevalence, seasonal incidence and geographical distribution of abomasal worm infection of native sheep in Baneh Town of Iran, suitable for animal husbandry. From February 2011 to February 2012 the contents of abomasums of 400 sheep were washed separately in a 100 mesh sieve. The worms present in each abomasum were collected separately, counted and preserved in 70% alcohol containing 5% glycerin for identification to the species. The overall percentage of infection was 25.36% and Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Marshallagia marshalli, Ostertagia occidentalis, Ostertagia trifurcata and Parabronema skrjabini were 6 species identified in studied areas. The overall prevalence rate and intensity of worm’s burden as representative of Iran, were low, although Teladorsagia circumcincta was the most prevalent and frequent worm species found. Using Chi-Square and ANOVA, no significant relationship was found between prevalence, season, age and sex.

Seasonal prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode parasites of sheep in Northern region of Nile Delta, Egypt

Over 1 year, from January to December 1999, a total of 173 slaughtered sheep at Al-Mahala abattoir were examined for presence of nematode parasites. Eighteen sheep (10.4%) were infected with eight different species of nematodes. The prevalence rates of detected nematode parasites were; Haemonchus contortus (3.5%), Haemonchus placei (1.7%), Trichuris ovis (5.8%), Parabronema skrjabini (2.9%), Ostertagia trifurcata (1.2%), Chabertia ovina (0.6%) and Strongyloides papillosus (0.6%), and Graphidiops species (2.9%). The seasonal prevalence of the infection with the nematode parasites was studied and the highest rate was during autumn (15.2%) followed by summer (11.1%) and winter (9.4%) while the lowest rate was during spring (5.6%).

A study on gastrointestinal helminths of camels in Mashhad abattoir, Iran

dromedarii (22%), Haemonchus longistipes (18%), Nematodirus oiratianus (16%), Cooperia oncophora (16%), Trichuris barbetonensis (10%), Parabronema skrjabini (10%), Nematodirella cameli (10%), Marshallagia marshalli (4%), Teladorsagia circumcincta (4%), Moniezia benedeni (3%), Moniezia expansa (3%) and Trichostrongylus vitrinus (2%). Nematodirella dromedarii, Trichostrongylus probolurus , Trichostrongylus colubriformis , Cooperia oncophora , and Nematodirus oiratianus , were identified from dromedary in Iran for the first time. The pathologi cal lesions in the affected abomasums, as well as s mall and large intestines, were hyperaemic and thickened mucosa with haemorrhagic foci. Histopathological examination revealed inflammatory reaction in the a bomasa, flattened mucosa and villous atrophy with inflammatory reactions composed of eosinophils and lymphocytes in the intestines, respectively. The prevalence observed in the present study indicates the necessity of using an anthelmintic drug for inc reasing the health and productivity of camels.

Seasonal changes and inhibited development of the abomasal nematodes of sheep and goats in Saudi Arabia

From August 1991 to July 1992, a total of 48 abomasa from sheep and 48 from goats were examined at the Jeddah abattoir for the presence of adult and larval nematodes. Twenty-three of the sheep (47.9%) and 21 of the goats (43.8%) were infected with nematodes, a total of eight species being found. Haemonchus contortus and Marshallagia marshalli appeared to be the most important parasites. Other species were less prevalent: Trichostrongylus axei, Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Parabronema skrjabini, Ostertagia circumcincta, Skrjabinagia lyrata, Ostertagia trifurcata. Overall worm counts and infection rates were lowest in the winter. Larval inhibition plays an important role in the Marshallagia life cycle, since this parasite survives the dry season as arrested larvae. By contrast, inhibition of Haemonchus was less pronounced and the parasite survived the same season as adults and larvae. Although the phenomenon of hypobiosis was observed, the number of inhibited larvae was too small to be expected to induce clinical symptoms after resumption of development.

Absence of hypobiosis in abomasal nematodes of sheep and goats in Egypt

A total of 96 abomasa from sheep and goats at the Zagazig abattoir, Sharkia Province, Egypt, were examined, during the four climatic seasons from April 1986 to March 1987, for the presence of adult and larval nematodes. Adults of Trichostrongylus axei were most numerous followed by adult Haemonchus contortus. Adult Ostertagia sp. and Parabronema skrjabini were less prevalent. There was no significant difference between sheep and goats in infection rates, but worm burdens of the nematodes other than Ostertagia sp. were significantly higher ( P < 0.05) in sheep than in goats. The animals were uniformly infected with these parasites throughout the years as there were no significant differences in the incidence or intensity of infections between the four seasons. The numbers from the wall of the abomasa were small in relation to the total adult worm population throughout the year with a slight increase during the summer. Hypobiosis, therefore, seems not to be important in the life cycle of abomasal nematodes of sheep and goats in Sharkia Province, Egypt.