Leopard Research Articles

Human‐wildlife conflict at high altitude: A case from Gaurishankar conservation area, Nepal

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflict studies of high‐altitude areas are rare due to budget constraints and the challenging nature of research in these remote environments. This study investigates the prevalence and increasing trend of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the mountainous Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) of Nepal, with a specific focus on leopard (Panthera pardus) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus laniger). The study analyzes a decade of HWC reports and identifies goats as the livestock most targeted by leopards. The Dolakha district of GCA received the highest number of reports, highlighting the need for mitigation measures in the area. In GCA, livestock attacks accounted for 85% of compensation, with the remaining 15% for human injuries. We estimate that the number of reported wildlife attacks grew on average by 33% per year, with an additional increase of 57 reports per year following the implementation of a new compensation policy during BS 2076 (2019 AD). While bear attacks showed no significant change post‐rule alteration, leopard attack reports surged from 1 to 60 annually, indicating improved compensation may have resulted in increased leopard‐attack reporting rates. The findings emphasize the economic impact of HWC on local communities and suggest strategies such as increasing prey populations, promoting community education and awareness, enhancing alternative livelihood options, developing community‐based insurance programs, and implementing secure enclosures (corrals) to minimize conflicts and foster harmonious coexistence. This research addresses a knowledge gap in HWC in high‐altitude conservation areas like the GCA, providing valuable insights for conservation stakeholders and contributing to biodiversity conservation and the well‐being of humans and wildlife.

Exploring temporal activity of dholes, their prey, and competitors in East Java, Indonesia.

Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are endangered large carnivores found in scattered populations in Asia. One of the main threats to dholes is the decreasing prey availability throughout their distribution range. In the present study, we used camera trap data collected over 6 years to investigate the temporal activity patterns of dholes and their putative prey species in Baluran National Park in Java, Indonesia. We also explored the overlap in activity between dholes and the park's other remaining large carnivore the Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), as well as humans. Furthermore, we investigated potential differences in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming in pairs or alone. We found a high temporal overlap between dholes and their wild ungulate prey species (ranging from Δ = 0.66-0.90), with the lowest overlap observed between dholes and bantengs (Bos javanicus) (Δ = 0.66), and the highest between dholes and muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) (Δ = 0.90). A very low overlap was found between dholes and domestic cattle (Bos indicus) (Δ = 0.27) whereas a moderately high overlap was found between dholes and leopards (Δ = 0.70) and dholes and humans (Δ = 0.62). We found a significant difference in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming alone or in pairs (Δ = 0.78, p = .01). Single/pairs of dholes were more active both during the day and at night, whereas packs were predominantly active around sunrise and sunset. The high overlap with humans potentially has a negative effect on dhole activity, particularly for dispersing individuals, and the low overlap with domestic species questions the extent to which dholes are considered to predate on them.

<b> </b>SEASONAL<b> </b>VARIATION AND PREVALENCE OF GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES IN CAPTIVE MAMMALS AT LAHORE ZOO

This study was conducted at Lahore Zoo, Punjab, Pakistan from January to December 2023 to assess the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in 10 different captive wild mammalian species. The mammals including girrafe (Giraffa), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), zebra (Equus quagga), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), Rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Chinkara deer (Gazella bennettii), urial (Ovis vignei) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) were selected. A total of 100 fresh fecal samples were collected from the animal enclosures in polythene bags (6×4 inches) 2 times during study period. Coprological examination was done using qualitative analysis such as direct smear method, sedimentation method and flotation methods. The parasitic prevalence was as follows zebra 44.5%, followed by giraffes, rhinoceroses, and wild boars at 27.8%, nilgai, urial, lion and vervet monkey at 22.3%, chinkara 16.7% and leopard 11.2%. The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was as Eimeria spp. (3.9%), Strongyloides spp. (3.4%), Trichuris spp. (2.8%), Giardia spp., Ascaris spp., and Strongyle spp. (2.3%), Entamoeba histolytica (1.12%), Trematode eggs (1.12%), Nematodirus (1.12%), Balantidium coli (0.6%), Haemonchus contortus (0.6%), Paramphistomum cervi (0.6%), Parascaris equorum (1.12%) and Cryptosporidium (1.12%). The overall parasitic prevalence was 23.9%, with a noticeable seasonal variation, being higher in summer (31.2%) compared to winter (17.79%). These findings highlight the significant parasitic burden in captive wild mammals. It can be concluded that regular de-worming sessions, cleaning, disinfection of enclosures and proper disposal of fecal matter should be done to reduce the overall parasitic burden.

Human-wild mammal interaction and the local people’s attitudes towards the mammals in Gara Bilita (Belete Gera) forest, South-West Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The study investigated human-wild mammal interactions and the attitudes of the local people in southwest Ethiopia. Systematic random sampling techniques were used to select villages and respondents. Data was gathered through a questionnaire (open- and closed-ended questions). A total of 130 households from three krebeles were chosen (Sebeka Debiye = 27, Atiro Gefere = 54, and Sombo Deru = 49). Crop damage was the main impact from wild animals. The major mammals responsible for the crop damage were Papio anubis, Cercopithecus aethiops, Sus scrofa, Phacochoerus africanus, and Hystrix cristata, respectively. The identified predators were Crocuta crocuta, Panthera pardus, Leptailurus serval, Panthera leo, and Papio anubis. Habitat disturbance, agricultural expansion, and deforestation were the suspected causes of the damage. Local farmers used guards, scarecrows, chasing, and smoking to prevent crop raiders. The implementation of community-based conservation strategies and practical management plans for the coexistence of wild mammals and people is required.

Measuring people’s attitude towards conservation of Leopard Panthera pardus (Mammalia: Carnivora) in the foothills of Himalayan region

Measuring people’s attitudes about the large carnivores involved in human-wildlife interface, also termed conflict or interaction, is an essential aspect of developing effective conservation and management planning for human-carnivore coexistence. Human-leopard (Panthera pardus) interaction is widespread and one of the most pressing conservation issues within the global range of leopards. However, there is a scarcity of information on local people’s opinions and attitudes concerning carnivores in human-dominated areas. Our current study focused on understanding the human dimensions of human-leopard interactions in the multi-purpose landscape situated in the foothills of Shiwalik Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Between January and May 2022, we conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey (N = 266) to understand how socio-demographic factors impact the attitudes of local people toward leopard conservation in the Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand, India. Overall, 61.7% of respondents had positive attitudes toward leopards and supported leopard conservation, primarily attributed to the aesthetic value of leopards. Using ordinal logistic regression models, we found that male respondents and individuals with higher education had a positive attitude towards leopard conservation. The majority of respondents who conveyed positive attitudes towards leopard conservation belonged to the more educated socio-demographic groups. As a follow-up, specific studies need to be conducted on local people’s attitude about compensation or compassionate payments, often disbursed as compassionate payments, the response of the forest department to prevailing conflict, and current awareness programs. These can be crucial factors towards shaping the attitude of local respondents and promote human-leopard coexistence.

Leopard dispersal across a fragmented landscape in the Western Cape, South Africa

AbstractLeopard (Panthera pardus) dispersal is poorly documented. An amalgamation of independent, mixed‐method camera trap data spanning six years provides evidence of male leopard dispersal across the highly fragmented Overberg region, Western Cape, South Africa. Dispersal distances from four individuals ranged from 35.3 to 112.0 km between the origin and destination datapoints. Leopard dispersal across the modified landscape affirms their adaptability and resilience and reveals local functional connectivity. We caution against population status complacency but rather advocate for maintaining and improving functional landscape connectivity for this umbrella species. This study, which collated piecemeal data from four sources, highlights the importance of collaboration and data sharing in conservation.

Home range, habitat use and capture-release of translocated leopards in Gir landscape, Gujarat, India.

Understanding the spatial ecology of translocated leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) is crucial for their conservation and the effective assessment of conflict management strategies. We investigated the home range and habitat preferences of five radio-collared leopards (n = 5; 2 males; 3 females) in the Gir landscape. Additionally, we examined the usefulness of the capture-release strategy for these animals. We assessed home range and habitat selection using kernel density estimation (at 95% and 50% levels) and compositional analysis. Our findings revealed that leopards exhibited distinct patterns of movement, often returning to their original capture site or nearby locations or exploring new areas within 3 to 25 days, covering distances ranging from 48 to 260 km. The average home range (95% FK) was estimated at 103.96±36.37 (SE) km2, with a core area usage (50% FK) of 21.38±5.95 km2. Seasonally, we observed the largest home ranges during summer and the smallest during winter. Males exhibited larger home ranges (95% FK, 151±64.28 km2) compared to females (56.18±14.22 km2). The habitat analysis indicated that agricultural areas were consistently preferred in the multi-use landscape at the 2nd order habitat selection level. Additionally, habitat around water bodies was highly favoured at the 3rd order, with distinct variations in habitat selection observed during day and night. This study highlights the significance of riverine and scrubland habitats, as leopards exhibited strong preferences for these habitats within their home ranges. We emphasize the importance of conserving natural habitat patches, particularly those surrounding water bodies. We also report on the characteristics of the capture-release strategy and provide our observations indicating no escalated aggression by leopards' post-release. In conclusion, this study evaluates widely employed approaches to conflict mitigation and suggests the continuous review and assessment of management strategies for mitigating human-leopard conflicts.

Range-wide camera traps reveal potential prey species for Javan leopards

Prey depletion poses a threat to large carnivores worldwide. The Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), the last remaining apex predator on the Indonesian island of Java, is facing numerous threats from human activities including poaching, habitat loss and prey depletion. Despite the fact that the Javan leopard is an adaptable and opportunistic predator capable of surviving in various environments, our understanding of its prey and predator-prey interactions is still limited, which is crucial for their conservation. Using camera trap data collected from four national parks (i.e., Ujung Kulon, Gunung Gede Pangrango, Meru Betiri, Alas Purwo) that represent four distinct terrestrial ecoregions across the island of Java, we investigated the species richness, relative abundance, and spatial-temporal overlap in activity patterns between the Javan leopard and other animals that coexist in the same location. Our analysis of 7461 independent photos, covering 12,983 camera trap days, revealed that areas with the presence of Javan leopards exhibited higher species richness and abundance compared to those without the presence of Javan leopards. In addition, we found that the activities of banteng (Bos javanicus), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Javan deer (Rusa timorensis), Javan mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), junglefowl (Gallus spp.), spangled ebony langur (Trachypithecus auratus), Javan rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) were highly overlapping with those of Javan leopards in space and time, suggesting that these species are potential candidate prey for Javan leopards. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive investigation of potential prey for the Javan leopard that utilizes camera traps from all four types of terrestrial ecoregions on Java Island. The findings of this study may serve as essential information for the conservation of this critically endangered species.

Leopards at large: population density, habitat utilisation and spatio-temporal overlap of leopards (Panthera pardus) with competitors and prey in the Rajaji Tiger Reserve, northern India

Context In the vicinity of the western Rajaji Tiger Reserve, a significant rise in conflicts between humans and leopards has occurred. These conflicts have resulted in a substantial number of human deaths, with 60% attacks resulting in deaths over a 4-year period. Aims This study aims to examine any potential connection among the non-breeding tigers, leopards, prey, humans and the increased occurrence of conflicts. Methods To address this objective, we conducted an analysis to evaluate the density of leopards, as well as their spatial and temporal behaviour with respect to tigers, prey and humans through on-site habitat use, circular statistics, diel-overlap as well spatial niche breadth and spatial-niche overlap. Key results Our findings showed one of the highest leopard-density estimates (excluding cubs) (mean ± s.e.) of 23.7 ± 4.8 per 100 km2. When examining on-site habitat use by leopards, we found three variables that had a negative influence, namely, human presence, slope, and the presence of tigers. The presence of a large prey (sambar) had a positive influence. Leopards, exhibiting the highest spatial-niche breadth, demonstrated a small overlap with both tigers and humans, while displaying a significant diel overlap with sambar. The niche overlap was notably high with sambar, but very low with humans and tigers. Conclusions Although tigers locally created a zone of spatial and temporal avoidance, at the population level the leopards experienced a surge in numbers in response to the reduced tiger numbers, indicated by their high density. This could be a cause of high leopard movement into nearby human settlements. This unique scenario could have contributed to conflict. Implications Understanding the coexistence among different species and the impact of transient animals is crucial to develop effective management strategies to mitigate conflict. This approach would facilitate and ensure the long-term survival of diverse large carnivores in the tropical forests of southern Asia through sustained support for conservation from local communities.

Sex and size matter: Intricate dominance relationships in an East African large carnivore guild

AbstractHuman disturbance has the potential to alter competitive interactions, favoring species better able to adapt to areas used by humans. One such species is the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), which has been successful in human‐dominated areas throughout Africa. In addition, hyenas are frequently successful in kleptoparasiting prey brought down by other carnivore species (e.g., leopards [Panthera pardus]). In the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania, leopard density declines sharply close to human settlements, and hyenas are their only competitors. Using camera trap data and a spatio‐temporal occupancy model, we assessed the relative dominance of each species through spatial co‐occurrence, altered activity patterns and temporary site avoidance. We tested the hypothesis that hyenas gain a competitive advantage over leopards in human‐dominated areas due to their relatively higher tolerance for anthropogenic activities. We found that while hyena occupancy was best predicted by prey occupancy and not strongly affected by landscape factors associated with humans, leopards, especially male leopards, were less likely to be detected close to human settlements. Female leopards, which are smaller than males, exhibited activity shifts and temporary site avoidance in response to hyenas. In response to male leopards, hyenas shifted their activity patterns to become more active around dusk and dawn. These results suggest that while hyenas may be behaviorally dominant over female leopards, they are subordinate to male leopards. We found that male leopards and hyenas were less likely to co‐occur closer to people, especially where prey was scarce, suggesting subordinance of hyenas to male leopards may be mitigated by human disturbance. Furthermore, young male leopards shifted their activity patterns to be more diurnal in response to hyena presence, suggesting that dominance relationship between hyenas and leopards develops with age and is probably related to body size. These results indicate that human disturbance has the potential to affect the competitive relationship between leopards and hyenas in the Udzungwa Mountains, but that relationships will vary with sex and body size.

One size does not fit all: Differential predation on livestock species by leopards (Panthera pardus) in a multiuse landscape in the gangetic plains, India

There are underlying patterns involved in predation, particularly for an adaptable species like leopard. One of them is size of the prey. The selection of a prey by a carnivore is typically determined by the trade-off between energy spent and gained. Here size becomes even more consequential when conflict is involved, but most studies typically map all species as a single entity at a single spatial scale. This study aimed at understanding the multiscale nature of the conflict based on the size livestock attacked by leopards (large stock − cattle and small stock − goat and sheep). The methodology encompassed targeted sampling which included the collection of the GPS locations of the attack sites. Spatial layers of 14 environmental variables that represented three spatial scales i.e. proximate (cache-distance), local (daily-movement), and landscape (home-range) scale were then created through remotely sensed data. After that Generalized additive models were utilized for analysis, with ΔAIC used for model selection and evaluation was performed via AUC and TSS statistic. Our results indicate a spatial distinction in predation strategies. In the final model the statistically significant variables for large stock included a higher proportion of cover, and a lower proportion of settlements at the home-range scale, very low human population density at daily-movement scale, and NDVI representing moderately dense vegetation and terrain ruggedness index representing flat terrain at cache-distance scale. Similarly, for small stock the variables included a higher proportion of agricultural land and NDVI values representing open terrain. The effective degrees of freedom was higher than 2 for most of the variables, indicating non-linear relationships. We inferred that the leopards’ targeted large stock in more secluded dry deciduous forests farther from human settlements, where they may be found grazing alone. In contrast, smaller stock, being easier to catch, are killed more frequently in rugged terrain across a wider scrub landscape with scantier cover. Consequently, this selective selection based on size might have its basis in the perceived risk of being chased off by people and the reward in terms of the size of the acquired meal.

Turning the tide on big cat trade: Expert opinion on trends and conservation lessons from the Republic of Korea.

Unsustainable trade in big cats affects all species in the genus, Panthera, and is one of the foremost threats to their conservation. To provide further insight into the impact of policy interventions intended to address this issue, we examine the case study of the Republic of Korea (South Korea), which in the early 1990s was one of the world's largest importers of tiger (Panthera tigris) bone and a major manufacturer of tiger-derived medicinal products. In 1993, South Korea became a Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and introduced a ban on commercial trade in CITES Appendix I-listed big cats a year later. We used an expert-based questionnaire survey and an exploration of the CITES trade database to investigate what has since happened to big cat trade in South Korea. Expert opinion suggested that big cat trade has likely substantially reduced since the early 1990s, as a result of the trade ban and broad socioeconomic changes. However, illegal trade has not been eradicated entirely and we were able to confirm that products reportedly derived from big cats were still publicly available for sale on a range of Korean online marketplaces, sometimes openly. The items most commonly reported by respondents from post-1994 trade and supported by expert-led evidence were tiger and leopard (Panthera pardus) skins and tiger bone wine. Although South Korea may provide a useful case study of a historically significant consumer country for tiger which has made strong progress in addressing unsustainable levels of big cat trade within a short period of time, there remains a need to address recalcitrant small-scale, illegal trade. We also recommend further investigation regarding reports of South Korean nationals being involved in illegal trade in tiger-derived products in Southeast Asia.

First insights into the spatio-temporal ecology of sympatric large carnivores in Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal

Abstract Large carnivores play a crucial role in their native ecosystems, but their populations are rapidly declining across the African continent. West Africa is no exception, with large protected areas often forming the last strongholds for these species. Little is known about the population status and ecology of large carnivores in the region, hampering the design and implementation of effective conservation strategies. We conducted a camera-trap survey during the dry season in Niokolo-Koba National Park, the largest terrestrial protected area in Senegal and the second largest in West Africa, to investigate the spatio-temporal ecology of the four large carnivores inhabiting the Park: the spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta, leopard Panthera pardus, West African lion Panthera leo leo and African wild dog Lycaon pictus. Spotted hyaenas and leopards had the widest spatial distribution and highest probability of site use. Spotted hyaena site use was positively associated with leopard relative abundance index and negatively associated with normalized difference vegetation index, whereas only distance to the nearest road influenced leopard site use. Distance to the Gambian River was the most important covariate positively affecting site use by lions. African wild dog site use was negatively associated with the relative abundance indices of lions and leopards. Lions, spotted hyaenas and leopards showed strong overlap in their activity patterns. By providing new information on the ecology of large carnivores in West Africa, including where they range and which habitats are critical for their survival, our study will facilitate conservation planning. Our findings lay the foundations for future research to conserve these threatened species in West Africa effectively and to guide ranger patrol efforts, which are key for their long-term survival.

Leopard density and determinants of space use in a farming landscape in South Africa

Protected areas are traditionally the foundation of conservation strategy, but land not formally protected is of particular importance for the conservation of large carnivores because of their typically wide-ranging nature. In South Africa, leopard (Panthera pardus) population decreases are thought to be occurring in areas of human development and intense negative interactions, but research is biased towards protected areas, with quantitative information on population sizes and trends in non-protected areas severely lacking. Using Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture and occupancy techniques including 10 environmental and anthropogenic covariates, we analysed camera trap data from commercial farmland in South Africa where negative human-wildlife interactions are reported to be high. Our findings demonstrate that leopards persist at a moderate density (2.21 /100 km2) and exhibit signs of avoidance from areas where lethal control measures are implemented. This suggests leopards have the potential to navigate mixed mosaic landscapes effectively, enhancing their chances of long-term survival and coexistence with humans. Mixed mosaics of agriculture that include crops, game and livestock farming should be encouraged and, providing lethal control is not ubiquitous in the landscape, chains of safer spaces should permit vital landscape connectivity. However, continuing to promote non-lethal mitigation techniques remains vital.

Relationships between Anthropogenic Activities and Distribution of Medium to Large Mammal Species Assemblage in Madi Wildlife Corridor: Implication for Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda

Wildlife corridors between protected areas increase connectivity by integrating populations into single demographic units, thereby increasing gene flows within populations and thus probability of survival. This study assessed the relationship between anthropogenic activities and mammal species assemblage within and around Madi wildlife corridor. The study adopted recce walks along a zig-zag line transect and straight line transect methods of game tracking. Global Position System (GPS) was used to map locations of direct mammal sightings, vocalizations, tracks, dung/droppings, diggings, carcasses, and skeletal remains of mammal species. Similarly, anthropogenic activities such as hunting using bow and arrows, rifles, trapping, tree cutting, charcoal burning, bush burning, cultivation, and settlements that seemed to influence assemblage of the mammals in the area of study were mapped. The result showed that the Madi wildlife corridor still contained diverse mammal species including but not limited to; the African Elephants (Loxodonta Africana sp.), Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Leopards (Panthera pardus), Spotted Hyena (Crocuta Crocuta), Northern Giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis), Uganda kob (Kobus kob thomasi), Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) and Reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), which were comparable to that of the adjacent Murchison Falls National Park (MFNP). The relationship between anthropogenic activities and species assemblage showed a negatively skewed distribution of some of the large mammal species specifically Elephants, Giraffes, and Hippopotamus. The study recommends gazettement of a wildlife corridor between MFNP and East Madi Wildlife Reserve to promote wildlife connectivity between two adjacent ecosystem-protected areas in northern Uganda. As a long-term strategy for wildlife conservation, it is crucial to undertake a systematic assessment and prioritization and demarcation of wildlife corridors and development of a comprehensive action plan for securing them. We further recommend development of a national Wildlife Corridor Regulations to provide a framework for the sustainable conservation of biodiversity

Mitogenomic Characterization of South African Leopards and the Effect of Past Climatic Events

Revealing phylogeographic structure is important for accurate subspecies delineation and understanding a species’ evolutionary history. In leopards (Panthera pardus), there are currently nine subspecies recognized. On the African continent, only one subspecies occurs (P. p. pardus), although mitochondrial DNA from historical samples suggests the presence of three putative continental clades: (1) West Africa (WA), (2) Central Africa (CA), and (3) Southern Africa (SA). So far, whole genome data did not recover this phylogeographic structure, although leopards in the southern periphery of their distribution range in Africa have not yet been investigated in detail. The Mpumalanga province of South Africa is of particular interest, as here, the CA and the SA clade possibly meet. The aim of this study was to characterize the first mitogenomes of African leopards from Mpumalanga, to help clarifying how South African leopards fit into continental patterns of genetic differentiation. Complete mitogenomes from nine leopards, including a strawberry leopard, were assembled de novo and included in phylogenetic analysis, in combination with 32 publicly available mitogenomes. Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses identified two deeply diverged putative clades within South Africa, which were more genetically distinct than two subspecies in Asia. The clades dated back to 0.76-0.86 million years ago, indicating that they originated during the climatically unstable Mid-Pleistocene, as seen in other large mammals. The Pleistocene refuge theory states that the maintenance of savanna refugia in East and Southern Africa promoted the divergence between populations. As such, leopards may reflect the unique climatic history of southern Africa, which has resulted in eminent and endemic genetic diversity.

Leopard subspecies conservation under climate and land-use change.

Predicting the effects of global environmental changes on species distribution is a top conservation priority, particularly for large carnivores, that contribute to regulating and maintaining ecosystems. As the most widespread and adaptable large felid, ranging across Africa and Asia, leopards are crucial to many ecosystems as both keystone and umbrella species, yet they are threatened across their ranges. We used intraspecific species distribution models (SDMs) to predict changes in range suitability for leopards under future climate and land-use change and identify conservation gaps and opportunities. We generated intraspecific SDMs for the three western leopard subspecies, the African, Panthera pardus pardus; Arabian, Panthera pardus nimr; and Persian, Panthera pardus tulliana, leopards, and overlapped predictions with protected areas (PAs) coverage. We show that leopard subspecies differ in their environmental associations and vulnerability to future changes. The African and Arabian leopards are predicted to lose ~25% and ~14% of their currently suitable range, respectively, while the Persian leopard is predicted to experience ~12% range gains. We found that most areas predicted to be suitable were not protected, with only 4%-16% of the subspecies' ranges falling inside PAs, and that these proportions will decrease in the future. The highly variable responses we found between leopard subspecies highlight the importance of considering intraspecific variation when modelling vulnerability to climate and land-use changes. The predicted decrease in proportion of suitable ranges falling inside PAs threatens global capacity to effectively conserve leopards because survival rates are substantially lower outside PAs due to persecution. Hence, it is important to work with local communities to address negative human-wildlife interactions and to restore habitats to retain landscape connectivity where PA coverage is low. On the other hand, the predicted increase in range suitability across southern Europe presents opportunities for expansion outside of their contemporary range, capitalising on European rewilding schemes.

Can genetic rescue help save Arabia's last big cat?

Genetic diversity underpins evolutionary potential that is essential for the long-term viability of wildlife populations. Captive populations harbor genetic diversity potentially lost in the wild, which could be valuable for release programs and genetic rescue. The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has disappeared from most of its former range across the Arabian Peninsula, with fewer than 120 individuals left in the wild, and an additional 64 leopards in captivity. We (i) examine genetic diversity in the wild and captive populations to identify global patterns of genetic diversity and structure; (ii) estimate the size of the remaining leopard population across the Dhofar mountains of Oman using spatially explicit capture-recapture models on DNA and camera trap data, and (iii) explore the impact of genetic rescue using three complementary computer modeling approaches. We estimated a population size of 51 (95% CI 32-79) in the Dhofar mountains and found that 8 out of 25 microsatellite alleles present in eight loci in captive leopards were undetected in the wild. This includes two alleles present only in captive founders known to have been wild-sourced from Yemen, which suggests that this captive population represents an important source for genetic rescue. We then assessed the benefits of reintroducing novel genetic diversity into the wild population as well as the risks of elevating the genetic load through the release of captive-bred individuals. Simulations indicate that genetic rescue can improve the long-term viability of the wild population by reducing its genetic load and realized load. The model also suggests that the genetic load has been partly purged in the captive population, potentially making it a valuable source population for genetic rescue. However, the greater loss of its genetic diversity could exacerbate genomic erosion of the wild population during a rescue program, and these risks and benefits should be carefully evaluated. An important next step in the recovery of the Arabian leopard is to empirically validate these conclusions, implement and monitor a genomics-informed management plan, and optimize a strategy for genetic rescue as a tool to recover Arabia's last big cat.

Big cats persisting in human-dominated landscape: Habitat suitability and connectivity of leopards in central North China

ContextThe leopard (Panthera pardus), the only large carnivore species occurring in central North China, has undergone substantial range contraction and population decline due to anthropogenic pressure across the region.ObjectivesIn this study, we aimed to map its current suitable habitats and assess the degree of connectivity between core habitats to inform future conservation planning of this big cat at the landscape scale.MethodsWe conducted this study in central North China (34°11´ ~ 43°49´N, 103°11´ ~ 123°54´E, about 936,000 km2). We collected occurrence locations (N = 196) of leopards from 2014–2020, and modeled its habitat suitability using an “ensemble” species distribution model by incorporating environmental and anthropogenic variables. We then identified the potential dispersal corridors between core habitat patches (≥ 100 km2) through connectivity analysis.ResultsThe leopards preferred humid forests at higher elevations with less human disturbance. Their suitable habitats were highly fragmented, with main core habitats located in Shanxi, Shaanxi, and the border between Gansu and Ningxia provinces. Among all the 8,679 km2 suitable habitats, we identified 14 core habitats (139–1,084 km2, mean = 495.21 km2) with a total area of 6,933 km2, among which only 25.26% (1,751 km2) are covered by nature reserves and only 11 core habitats were confirmed with leopard occurrence. We also identified 8 least-cost pathways among these core habitats with an average length of 57.22 km.ConclusionsOur results revealed that, leopards are persisting in highly fragmented habitats with fragile connectivity among core habitats. The leopards remaining in North China should be considered and managed as a regional meta-population for their long-term persistence in the human-dominated landscape.

Species discrimination from hair using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy: Application in wildlife forensics

Hair is a commonly encountered trace evidence in wildlife crimes involving mammals and can be used for species identification which is essential for subsequent judicial proceedings. This proof of concept study aims, to distinguish the black guard hair of three wild cat species belonging to the genus Panthera i.e. Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), and Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) using a rapid and non-destructive ATR-FTIR spectroscopic technique in combination with chemometrics. A training dataset including 72 black guard hair samples of three species (24 samples from each species) was used to construct chemometric models. A PLS2-DA model successfully classified these three species into distinct classes with R-Square values of 0.9985 (calibration) and 0.8989 (validation). VIP score was also computed, and a new PLS2DA-V model was constructed using variables with a VIP score ≥ 1. External validation was performed using a validation dataset including 18 black guard hair samples (6 samples per species) to validate the constructed PLS2-DA model. It was observed that PLS2-DA model provides greater accuracy and precision compared to the PLS2DA-V model during cross-validation and external validation. The developed PLS2-DA model was also successful in differentiating human and non-human hair with R-Square values of 0.99 and 0.91 for calibration and validation, respectively. Apart from this, a blind test was also carried out using 10 unknown hair samples which were correctly classified into their respective classes providing 100 % accuracy. This study highlights the advantages of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy associated with PLS-DA for differentiation and identification of the Royal Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard, and Snow Leopard hairs in a rapid, accurate, eco-friendly, and non-destructive way.