Pangolin Conservation Research Articles

Perception on the conservation of Phataginus tricuspis, reflections on OECM sites in Osun State, Nigeria

This study evaluates local communities’ knowledge, attitude, and perception towards the critically endangered African Tree Pangolin and its conservation in the 15 identified Other Effect Area Based Conservation Measures (OECM) sites in Osun State, Nigeria. 360 participants aged 20 and older participated in the study, which found that 90.33% supported the presence of African Tree Pangolin. However, 61% affirmed that their population is reducing due to hunting and habitat loss from poor agriculture. 67% of interviewees believed that benefits from wildlife through tourism, insect regulation, bush meat, and medicine influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards conservation. 33% of the local population changed their attitude and perception towards conservation. African Tree Pangolin conservation was deemed a priority by those with higher levels of education, but the majority of respondents claimed that the idea was unsupported because of the high revenue generated by Pangolin sales. Increasing public awareness through media, handbills, billboards, seminars, and films could help mitigate poor attitudes towards African Tree Pangolin conservation.

The Pangolin Universal Notching System: a scale-marking methodology for pangolins

Abstract Despite thousands of individuals entering the illegal wildlife trade each year, assessments of pangolin populations are largely non-existent, even in areas with high exploitation and limited personnel and field equipment. Although pangolins have unique keratin-based scales, there is no universal scale-marking method for individuals despite some pangolin conservation programmes utilizing marking for reference and cataloguing. Each programme currently establishes and manages its own system, resulting in inconsistencies and limiting data sharing. To facilitate pangolin monitoring and research, we developed a standardized method for assigning individual identification numbers, which we call the Pangolin Universal Notching System. This system is neither resource nor training intensive, which could facilitate its adoption and implementation globally. Its application could help to address knowledge gaps in pangolin ageing, reproduction, survivorship, migration and local trafficking patterns, and could be used in combination with other tagging techniques for research on pangolin biology.

Transcriptomic Characterization of Male Formosan Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) Reproductive Tract and Evaluation of Domestic Cat (Felis catus) as a Potential Model Species.

The Formosan pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) is an endemic animal of Taiwan. Due to their reduced population and behavior, very little is known about this enigmatic species. To unravel male pangolin reproduction, in the present study, we built a complete genomic database of the male Formosan pangolin reproductive tract and revealed highly expressing genes as well as critical signaling pathways and their associated biological processes in both the testis and the epididymis. Moreover, we evaluated the domestic cat (Felis catus) as a potential model species for male pangolin reproduction by comparing their testicular transcriptomes. We demonstrated a clear tissue-specific gene expression supporting the unique biological signature of each reproductive tissue and identified critical genes of the different reproductive organs. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed unique pathways in the testis as well as a clear epididymal transition. Furthermore, domestic cats, despite being the closest domestic species to pangolin, demonstrated their unfitness as a male reproduction model species as clear differences in spermatid differentiation and metabolism were observed. These results enable a better understanding of male pangolin reproduction characteristics and may inspire improvements in in Formosan pangolin conservation strategies.

Role of Advocacy Efforts in Conservation of Pangolins Species in Kenya

Pangolins, the unique and enigmatic scaly mammals, are facing an existential crisis due to rampant poaching and habitat loss, particularly in Kenya, where four species reside. This study assessed the role of advocacy efforts in conservation of pangolins species in Kenya. Advocacy efforts play a crucial role in the conservation of pangolin species in Kenya by raising awareness, influencing policy changes, and mobilizing resources for conservation initiatives. Pangolins face severe threats due to illegal wildlife trade, habitat loss, and lack of strong legal protections. Effective advocacy can address these challenges through various means. Firstly, advocacy efforts contribute significantly to raising awareness about the plight of pangolins among the public, policymakers, and key stakeholders. By highlighting the ecological importance of pangolins and the threats they face, advocates can generate public support and empathy, leading to increased conservation action. This awareness can also foster behavioral change, such as reducing demand for pangolin products, which is critical in combating illegal trade. Advocacy also plays a pivotal role in influencing policy changes and strengthening legal frameworks for pangolin conservation. Advocates work with policymakers to enact and enforce laws that protect pangolins from poaching, trafficking, and habitat destruction. This includes advocating for stricter penalties for wildlife crimes and advocating for the inclusion of pangolins in international conservation agreements. Furthermore, advocacy efforts help mobilize resources for pangolin conservation projects. By engaging with governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international donors, advocates can secure funding and support for research, enforcement efforts, and community-based conservation initiatives. This financial backing is essential for implementing effective conservation strategies on the ground. Community engagement is another critical aspect of pangolin conservation advocacy. Advocates work with local communities to promote sustainable livelihoods that reduce dependency on pangolin-related activities, such as bush meat hunting or illegal trade. Empowering communities through education and alternative income-generating projects not only helps protect pangolins but also fosters long-term conservation efforts. In Kenya, advocacy efforts are also focused on addressing broader conservation challenges, such as habitat loss and fragmentation. By advocating for the protection of critical pangolin habitats, such as forests and savannahs, advocates contribute to the overall biodiversity conservation landscape. This holistic approach recognizes the interconnectedness of species conservation and ecosystem health. Advocacy efforts also contribute to international collaboration and knowledge-sharing on pangolin conservation. By participating in global forums, conferences, and campaigns, advocates can leverage international support and expertise to amplify conservation efforts and promote best practices

Incentivizing pangolin conservation: Decisions at CITES CoP19 may reduce conservation options for pangolins

Incentivizing pangolin conservation: Decisions at <scp>CITES CoP19</scp> may reduce conservation options for pangolins

Genetic assessment of captive breeding program of Indian Pangolin: implications for conservation and management.

Captive breeding programs play a vital role in conservation of threatened species, necessitating an understanding of genetic diversity among captive individuals to ensure long-term genetic viability, appropriate mate selection, and successful reintroduction to native habitats. We did not observe any recent genetic bottleneck, and population showed moderate genetic diversity. The estimated effective population size, representing individuals capable of contributing genetically to future generations, was estimated as 18.6 individuals (11.4-35.1 at 95% CI). Based on the genetic make-up and allelic diversity, we found seventeen pangolins (11 females and 6 males) were genetically unrelated and relatively more potent than others. In this study, we evaluated the captive breeding program of the Indian pangolin population at the Pangolin Conservation Breeding Centre in Nandankanan Zoological Park, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. We highlight the significance of genetic monitoring within the captive population of Indian pangolin for preserving genetic diversity and ensuring the long-term survival of the species. We established the genetic profiles of all 29 pangolins and identified 17 pangolins to be prioritized for enhanced breeding and future zoo exchange programs. We appreciate the zoo authorities for promoting genetic assessment of pangolin for better and more effective monitoring of the captive breeding of the endangered Indian pangolin.

Non‐fatal removal of ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts, 1832) tracking devices by predators

AbstractThe ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts 1832) is vulnerable to extinction due to poaching and trafficking. Recovery of pangolins from the trade and subsequent rehabilitation and release form a core component of pangolin conservation. Post‐release monitoring of rehabilitated pangolins through the attachment of very high frequency (VHF) transmitters and satellite devices is carried out to determine the efficacy of release protocols. We report on 14 confirmed and 19 potential incidents of device removal by predators during non‐fatal attacks, which occurred over a 6 year period. During this time, 78 devices were deployed 109 times attached to 36 rehabilitated pangolins. These incidents should be considered during the design of future post‐release monitoring protocols.

The knowledge, attitude and practice of local Sabahan in Malaysia on Sunda pangolin

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species listed Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) as critically endangered and remained among the most traded mammals and other pangolin species. In Malaysia, various conservation works on this species have been conducted these past years through government and NGO works. Nevertheless, their population is still declining despite all the efforts. To date, little to nothing is known about the local perception regarding the Sunda pangolin conservation. Therefore, through the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) approach, this study evaluates Sabahan’s awareness level regarding the Sunda pangolin conservation. A total of 109 respondents were interviewed from all across Malaysia to investigate their perception of Sunda Pangolin conservation. The KAP index score shows that respondents’ attitude toward Sunda Pangolin conservation is the highest (93.34%), followed by Knowledge (81.15%) and Practice (79.63%), of which all three fall within good KAP score. They also agreed that spreading awareness and being proactive in supporting conservation work helps to prevent this species from extinction. Interestingly, the correlation analysis using Spearman rho’s coefficient shows a positive relationship between KA and education but not for Practice. Generally, Malaysians had a positive understanding of the Sunda pangolin’s current status and the legal information regarding this species. This research may help improve species conservation strategies, particularly in Sabah, Malaysia. There is an urgent need to improve the Sunda pangolin conservation program in the future. Factors that influence Practice needs to be identified and scrutinized. Public awareness is not the only factor that needs to be considered for improvement in conservation works. More importantly, the people who work in the conservation field.

Stakeholder preferences for pangolin conservation interventions in south‐east Nigeria

Abstract The overexploitation of biological resources severely threatens many species, requiring urgent and effective conservation interventions. Such interventions sometimes require governance structures that incorporate pluralist perspectives and collaborative decision‐making, especially in complex, multi‐faceted and multi‐scale issues like the illegal trade in pangolins. We used Q‐methodology to provide evidence to inform interventions for pangolin conservation in south‐east Nigeria. We sampled stakeholder groups associated with pangolin use and protection, including hunters, wild meat traders and Nigeria Customs Service employees, to elicit their opinion and knowledge on the use and perceptions of pangolins and their preferences for interventions to reduce pangolin decline. We found that the local consumption of pangolin meat as food is the primary driver of poaching in the region. This contradicts popular opinions that pangolins are specifically targeted for international trade, revealing an opportunity for site‐level behaviour change interventions. The different stakeholder groups identified awareness‐raising campaigns, law enforcement, community stewardship programs and ecotourism as preferred interventions, whose effectiveness we attempted to assess using reported case studies. We observed different perspectives between people associated with pangolin poaching and use (predominantly those living around pangolin habitats, including hunters and wild meat traders) and those working to protect them (such as conservation organisations and Nigeria Customs Service employees). For example, the first group supported community stewardship programs, while the latter preferred awareness‐raising and law enforcement efforts. This divergence in perspectives underpins the need for a combination of targeted interventions at the site level to engage different stakeholders while highlighting the potential challenges to collaborative decision‐making for species threatened by illegal wildlife trade. Policy implications. Our results stress the importance of targeted and context‐specific conservation interventions. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The Power of Specialization: NGO Advocacy in Global Conservation Governance

AbstractOrganizational ecology has attracted growing interest in global governance research in recent years. As a structural theory, however, organizational ecology has overlooked how organizations may shape the organizational environment by their own choices. Bridging the insights of organizational ecology and the study of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), I argue that the organizational choice of specialism (as opposed to generalism) increases the power of NGOs to influence an environmental condition—issue salience—by targeting a small but engaged segment of the public. Focusing on wildlife conservation governance, I collected new comprehensive data on NGOs and issue characteristics (2008–2015). My empirical analysis shows that specialist NGO density is strongly associated with issue salience. I further examined causal processes in the case of pangolin conservation advocacy, in which specialist NGOs first raised issue salience and generalist NGOs followed. The findings suggest a division of labor among NGOs and challenge a conventional view that the power of NGOs is concentrated in a small number of prominent organizations.

Human Dimensions of Pangolin Conservation: Indigenous and Local Knowledge, Ethnozoological Uses, and Willingness of Rural Communities to Enhance Pangolin Conservation in Nepal

Understanding local knowledge about wildlife, local uses, and local people's willingness to support conservation activities are crucial factors in formulating wildlife conservation strategies. We conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 1017 people from 105 villages located in different ecological regions across all seven Provinces of Nepal. We performed generalized linear mixed modeling (GLMM) to investigate the key drivers influencing respondents' knowledge about pangolins, based on a questionnaire score. We identified provinces, ethnicity, occupation, gender, and age group as strong predictors influencing local ecological knowledge about pangolins. The respondents from provinces in the western part of Nepal represented significantly lower knowledge scores than the respondents from the eastern and central provinces. Similarly, respondents belonging to non-Indigenous groups, students, females, and people aged between 18–30 years had the lowest knowledge scores about pangolins. A range of uses and beliefs about pangolins were reported across Nepal, and 48% of respondents believed that pangolin scales and meat were used for traditional medicines. The majority of respondents (71.1%) were willing to support pangolin conservation in their local areas. Our study suggests that awareness programs, alternative livelihood, and income-generating trainings for local communities could be helpful in enhancing the long-term conservation of pangolins in Nepal. Increased efforts are needed in western Nepal and across the country with non-Indigenous communities, females, young people, and students. Thus, this study offers an important baseline to help design and execute effective community-based conservation actions and management decisions for pangolin conservation.

Not Just an Issue in Forested Regions: Investigating the Consumption and Trade of Pangolins in a Forest-Savannah Mosaic Area of Cameroon

Background and research aims Cameroon hosts three species of pangolins and has recently been identified as a hub of pangolin trafficking. However, information on threats to pangolins needed to guide conservation efforts remains scarce, notably on consumption and trade patterns, and the prevalence of individuals trading pangolins. Local communities sharing the same habitats with pangolins can provide such information, which is useful to better target interventions. Methods Based on a snowball sampling approach and using interview surveys in 20 villages surrounding Mbam et Djerem National Park, we investigated the consumption of pangolins and its drivers, parts sold, selling prices, places sold and buyers, and employed the nominative technique to estimate the percentage of people within the surveyed population engaged in selling pangolins. Results Our results showed that both giant and white-bellied pangolins are locally consumed, mainly for their taste, and traded for meat and scales. Distance to the capital city Yaoundé, ethnolinguistic group, and education significantly affected the likelihood of consuming or trading white-bellied and giant pangolins. Selling and prices of giant pangolin meat and scales were significantly affected by distance to Yaoundé. The prevalence of people selling white-bellied and giant pangolins were higher in Tibati and Yoko compared to other municipalities. Implications for conservation Overall, our study provided information necessary for effective law enforcement and research-oriented decision-making for pangolin conservation. We recommend the establishment of consumption reduction campaigns focusing on taste preference, investigation of the impacts of the newly constructed national road on pangolin supply chains and trafficking, and increasing the involvement of local communities in the management process of Mbam et Djerem National Park.

Small NGOs and Agenda-Setting in Global Conservation Governance: The Case of Pangolin Conservation

Abstract The study of global environmental governance suggests that agenda-setting power is concentrated in a handful of high-profile, leading nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The recent rise of interest in pangolin conservation constitutes a deviant case in this theoretical tradition. In order to explain the puzzle, I introduce a new theory of small NGO influence and illustrate the mechanisms through the case study of pangolin conservation. Based on in-depth interviews with conservation NGOs, I show how small NGOs raised the salience of pangolin trafficking in global conservation governance by appealing to the shared values of the people who are highly interested in conservation. Moreover, the targeting of traditional Chinese medicine as the driver of pangolin extinction, while unintentionally, helped raise the salience of pangolin trafficking by leveraging the rise of anti-Chinese sentiment in the Global North. Finally, small NGOs were able to use their expertise to guide leading NGOs and state officials in rule-making processes. The findings offer a corrective to the hierarchical view of civil society, calling for more careful evaluations of small NGOs in global conservation governance.

Helping to save pangolins from extinction

AbstractPangolins, widely distributed in Asia and Africa, have been described as the most heavily trafficked wild mammals globally. Following the emergence of COVID‐19, researchers suggested that the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) may have been the intermediary host of SARS‐CoV‐2 in a transmission chain from bats to people. Although subsequent studies have shown that this is unlikely, the impact of this association on pangolins is unknown. In this article, we reflect on the potential impacts of this association in the context of critical knowledge gaps that need to be filled to inform pangolin conservation and mitigate the threats the species. face.

The past, present and future of the pangolin in Mainland China

Two pangolin species, the Chinese pangolin and the Sunda pangolin, occur in mainland China (MC). The Chinese pangolin was once widely distributed throughout provinces south of the Yangtze River, as well as north of the Yangtze River in southern Sichuan, northeast Chongqing, northwest Hubei, and southwest Henan Provinces. However, the range of the Sunda pangolin is limited to border areas of Yunnan Province. Due to overexploitation and habitat loss, the pangolin population has declined dramatically and it is now widely considered extinct in most areas. At present, although the distribution and population size of the pangolin in MC are unclear, residual populations have been confirmed in Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hunan, Chongqing, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang and Anhui provinces. Illegal hunting, habitat loss and fragmentation, small populations, low population densities, and reduced food supply are among the major threats facing pangolins today. The Chinese government has focused strongly on pangolin protection. They have been listed as Category I state-protected animals, and corresponding laws, policies and measures have been introduced to protect them from many threats. Important measures for pangolin conservation in MC include the reduction of public consumption demand, community economic development, public education about conservation and illegal activities, creation or expansion of nature reserves, optimization of road and water conservation facility construction, changes in afforestation methods, a moratorium on commercial breeding programs, proper treatment of confiscated pangolins and derivative products, further species conservation research, and international cooperative conservation efforts. If these conservation actions are implemented, the pangolin population in MC will have a bright future.

Morphometric characterisation of white-bellied pangolins rescued from trade for conservation in Nigeria

White-bellied pangolins ( Phataginus tricuspis ) rescued from trade in North-central and South-western Nigeria by the Pangolin Conservation Guild Nigeria were evaluated for morphometric characteristics in this study. Pangolins were rehabilitated and put in two age groupings defined by their total body length: Juvenile (≤75 cm) and Adult (>75 cm). Sex, rectal temperature, and Body Weight (BW) were recorded. Morphometric parameters which included; Total Body Length (TBL), Snout Length (SL), Head Length (HL), Head Body Length (HBL), Tail Length (TL), Neck Circumference (NC), Shoulder Circumference (SC), Body Circumference (BC), Forelimb Length (FLL) and Hindlimb Length (HLL) were measured. The ratio of TL to HBL was calculated. Measurements were obtained following standard procedures. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA and chi square at α 0.05 . A total of 29 pangolins comprising 20 adults (68.97%) and 9 juveniles (31.03%) that included 17 males (58.62%) and 12 females (41.38%) were sampled. The rectal temperature range was 32.0–34.2 °C. The mean body weights and mean TBL for adult males, adult females, juvenile males and juvenile females were 1.93 ± 0.51 and 96.57 ± 10.13, 1.60 ± 0.15 and 90.11 ± 3.88, 0.72 ± 0.15 and 61.74 ± 7.42, 0.91 ± 0.15 and 69.8 ± 3.15, respectively. The mean TL/HBL was 1.37 ± 0.02. There was positive correlation between the age group and body weight, TBL, SL, HL, HBL, TL, NC, SC, BC, FLL and HLL while there was no association with the rectal temperature and the TL/HBL ratio. There was no association between sex and any of the measurements. The morphometric parameters increased with age while rectal temperature and TL/HBL ratio was relatively constant. The adult male pangolins attained greater weight and total body lengths than females. Sexual dimorphism in measured parameters was not established. Information provided in this study will be useful in complementing pangolin health management, research and conservation efforts.

Estimating the Willingness to Pay for Eco-Labeled Products of Formosan Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) Conservation

Pangolins are currently the most smuggled mammals in the world. Meanwhile, Taiwan has demonstrated the world’s first case of the use of artificial feeding to raise pangolins to adulthood. The government has also begun to cooperate with farmers in pangolin-spotted areas. Agricultural products can earn the green label once they have passed the evaluation. The challenge is that very few farms have obtained the pangolin-friendly label so far. Our hypothesis is that farmers lack the knowledge that consumers would pay additional money for products that are labeled pangolin-friendly compared to regular ones. Thus, farmers have an insufficient incentive to apply for this label. This research aims to fill this gap by providing people with the necessary knowledge. Contingent valuation with the single-bounded dichotomous choice format was used, which involved investigating 417 valid observations. We found the following: (1) customers are willing to pay about 8.06 USD for pangolin-friendly rice (an increase of 397% in relation to the mean price of rice); (2) customers are willing to pay for about 11.46 USD for pangolin-friendly tea (an increase of 179% in relation to the mean price of tea); and (3) customers are willing to pay about 25.81 USD for pangolin-friendly coffee (an increase of 509% in relation to the mean price of coffee). Our findings give farmers more incentive to conduct eco-friendly production. Consequently, the quality of agricultural products as well as the habitats of endangered pangolins improve. Thus, consumers’ health, the environment, and the future of pangolin conservation can benefit in this attempt to achieve sustainability.

Comparative study of gut microbiota from captive and confiscated-rescued wild pangolins

Pangolins are among the most critically endangered animals due to widespread poaching and worldwide trafficking. Captive breeding is considered to be one way to protect them and increase the sizes of their populations. However, comparative studies of captive and wild pangolins in the context of gut microbiota are rare. Here, the gut microbiome of captive and confiscated-rescued wild pangolins is compared, and the effects of different periods of captivity and captivity with and without antibiotic treatment are considered. We show that different diets and periods of captivity, as well as the application of antibiotic therapy, can alter gut community composition and abundance in pangolins. Compared to wild pangolins, captive pangolins have an increased capacity for chitin and cellulose/hemicellulose degradation, fatty acid metabolism, and short-chain fatty acid synthesis, but a reduced ability to metabolize exogenous substances. In addition to increasing the ability of the gut microbiota to metabolize nutrients in captivity, captive breeding imposes some risks for survival by resulting in a greater abundance of antibiotic resistance genes and virulence factors in captive pangolins than in wild pangolins. Our study is important for the development of guidelines for pangolin conservation, including health assessment, disease prevention, and rehabilitation of wild pangolin populations.

Digging out the keys in the heap of seized pangolin scales: up scaling pangolin conservation using wildlife forensics

Pangolins, despite banned through legislative measures, are threatened by heavy illegal poaching for the demand of meat and scales in the making of Traditional East Asian Medicines (TEAM), resulting in severe decline of the population sizes across the distribution range. Species assignment from the confiscated scales is pre-requisite to enforce the appropriate national and international law and legislations in the successful prosecution of the cases in the court of law. In the present study, we characterised the morphological features in voucher specimens of the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and used the identified keys to establish the species identity from the confiscated scales. We investigated intra and inter genetic variations by sequencing 624 scales of pangolin for cytb gene and obtained unique haplotypes to Indian and Chinese pangolins by comparing sequences with all eight pangolin species. Scales from the voucher specimens, which varied in the size, shape and weight, were measured for morphological features to establish species signature of Indian and Chinese pangolins. The cumulative success of species assignment using morphological features from the confiscated scales was 98.33% and 100% from the large and caudal scales, respectively. The present study has generated reference signature of Indian and Chinese pangolins from the scales and facilitates the law enforcements for taking spot decision by ascertaining species identity from the seized scales.

SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY AND SELECT MINERAL PARAMETERS OF PRE-RELEASE SUNDA PANGOLINS (MANIS JAVANICA) FOLLOWING REHABILITATION IN VIETNAM.

Native to Southeast Asia, the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is critically endangered largely because of poorly regulated wildlife trade, consumptive practices, and use in traditional Chinese medicine. Efforts to rescue and rehabilitate animals confiscated from the illegal trade are complicated by a general lack of knowledge surrounding the normal health and disease processes unique to the species. To provide clinical reference intervals for normal health states of Sunda pangolins, biochemical parameters were determined from rescued individuals in Vietnam that had undergone a 14-day observation period and met a set of criteria for release back into the wild. Blood samples were collected from 42 apparently healthy Sunda pangolins while anesthetized or awake. Packed cell volume (PCV) and total solids (TS) were determined manually, and serum biochemistry values were determined in-house with a benchtop analyzer. Additional biochemical and mineral parameters not included in the primary panel were determined from a subset of 10 pangolins through an external diagnostic laboratory. Overall reference intervals were calculated for PCV and TS (n = 29) and for standard serum biochemistry parameters (n = 42). Females and males demonstrated significant variation with respect to body mass, potassium (K+), and phosphorus, whereas age was a significant source of variation in alkaline phosphatase. Seasonal variation in glucose (GLU), creatinine (CRE), total proteins, sodium, calcium, and K+ was also observed. Comparisons between anesthetized and awake pangolins demonstrated significant variation in GLU, CRE, and K+. The parameters determined in this study can serve as a clinical reference for ex situ Sunda pangolin conservation efforts. In the context of wildlife rehabilitation, serial bloodwork allows for continued monitoring of patient health and should inform decision making regarding release readiness and timing.